training have had their place in awakening the public to its responsibility in requiring a more effective education for workers in the industrial, commercial, and agricultural vocations. Four large ends contribute to the well-being of the individual and equally to that of the society of which he is a part, namely, (1) the preservation of health, (2) the development of practical efficiency, (3) preparation for responsible and effective citizenship, and (4) training in the wise use of leisure. Neglect of any one of these elements means impaired vocational productivity in the long run. In the earlier movement for vocational education, the emphasis was very partial to the second of these elements alone. Limiting the training of the non-professional workers to the development of immediate practical efficiency, and failing to develop adaptability and these other more indirect elements are both wasteful and dangerous.

SOME CONTROLLING FACTORS IN NON-PROFESSIONAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Between vocational education for the professions and for the non-professional occupations there exist a number of fundamental differences. Some of these have been wholly neglected in the haste with which occasional attempts at vocational education have been made in industrial and commercial fields. It is worth while to note these differences and the implications which follow from them:

(1) EARLY ENTRANCE TO NON-PROFESSIONAL VOCATIONS

Entrance upon professional callings assumes a maturity in years and a foundation in liberal education much greater than in the fields of industry, commercial life and agriculture entered by the greater number of workers. While few enter the professions under twenty years of age, and many not until four or five years later, the masses of workers in the productive and distributive fields enter in their teens, many in their very early teens. A full high school education, a college education, and often a later specialized professional course make up the preparation for professional workers. Few in the non-professional callings have a high school education and many not even a full elementary school course. This puts a burden upon the secondary vocational schools which does not have to be assumed by professional schools, that of including the elements of a liberal education-preparation for citizenship and the use of leisure, as well as training for productive efficiency. Because of the general neglect by both elementary and secondary schools, there is also a great need for educating workers as consumers, giving information and training in the purchase and use of food, clothing, and other economic necessities.

(2) NECESSITY FOR SPECIALIZED MANUAL SKILLS

In most of the non-professional callings, there must be developed various specialized skills in manipulation. This requires the equipment and opportunity for much shop, office or field practice, practical work involving the use of materials and much repetition in operations and processes until accuracy and speed are developed approximating productive standards. This involves expense and problems in the disposal of products not included in training for professional callings.

(3) LITTLE CONTACT WITH PEOPLE-INDIVIDUALISTIC WORK

The professional callings require much contact with peoplethe work all deals with personal or human relationships. Many of the non-professional callings are relatively individualistic. The work is chiefly with materials and calls for individual, technical manipulations.

(4) FLUCTUATIONS IN CHARACTER AND LOCATION

There is relatively much greater fluctuation in the non-professional callings. This fluctuation is of two types, that of the character of the work itself, and that of the location and quantity of work. Relatively the professions are conservative and change but slowly. The professional worker usually becomes identified with a given location and community, building up permanent social contacts and relationships. Inventions, discoveries and new types of organization occasion almost constant change in the character of industrial and commercial work, and the shifting of centers of production and the numerous adaptations to meet changing needs give a mobility and a fluctuation not usual in the professions. This factor in the productive and distributive occupations imposes a need for the development of adaptability which did not exist in the days of apprenticeship and a more domestic type of industrial production and distribution.

(5) OPPORTUNITIES FOR CHILD LABOR AND EXPLOITATION OF WORKERS The professional callings offer little opportunity for work by children, and all require ability and training of a relatively high order. In the organization and division of labor in,modern industrial life, there are many kinds of remunerative work which require very little ability or training, and which may be accomplished as well by children in their teens as by adults. This fact puts the school and the larger well-being of society as represented by efficient citizenship into sharp competition with remunerative occupations for the plastic, formative years of adolescent youth. Only by social pressure for a more far-sighted economic and social policy can this call for child labor and this exploitation of child life be controlled.

(6) LITTLE TESTING OF APTITUDES BEFORE ENTRANCE TO VOCATIONS In the professional callings, the long period of preliminary liberal education, and the definite professional training serve as a partial testing and sifting process whereby the fitness of the individual for the work he proposes to undertake may be somewhat estimated in advance. Success in his preparatory work is some measure of probability of success in the occupation to be followed. Failure usually means elimination. There is thus a type of automatic vocational guidance, although it is often bungling and but partially effective. In the non-professional callings, however, entrance upon this or that kind of work is often wholly a matter of chance. When the need for work comes almost any job that is offered is taken. The chances for failure or success are about even. The process of trial and failure or success is begun. One failure after another may follow at the cost of inefficient work to the employer, poor service to the public, and waste of effort, discouragement and the habituated attitude of mediocre worth to the worker.

IMPLICATIONS FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

From the foregoing characteristics of non-professional work, there evolve certain very definite implications for the direction and development of vocational education for these callings.

(1) THE PROBLEM IS ONE FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL

The problem is clearly one for the period of secondary education, covering the years from thirteen or fourteen to eighteen or twenty. Vocational education to be of most general value must begin before the vocation is entered. By the census of 1910, over eighty-five per cent of all persons in the United States engaged in gainful occupations were occupied in vocations entered by a majority of the workers in their teens.

(2) VOCATIONAL ACTIVITIES SHOULD BE INTRODUCED EARLY

To meet this problem comprehensively, there must be included in the schools for pupils of twelve years and upward courses designed to give work of appreciable worth in relationship to vocational needs. Many pupils who could not otherwise be retained in school will remain if they are given some training which will make for direct increase in efficiency when they go to work.

(3) DIFFERENTIATED COURSES SHOULD BE OFFERED

There should be provision for the early partial differentiation of pupils on the basis of aptitudes, interests and probable length of stay in school. By the beginning of the seventh grade period, school work, if it at all adequately reflects the life activities outside of school, should have revealed with some degree of significance the dominant aptitudes and interests of pupils. These, taken into account with economic and other home conditions of pupils, should enable teachers and parents to aid the pupil in a selection of work for subsequent years which will be of both general educational value and of rather definite vocational worth. Differentiation should be only partial for several years, but selections from the beginning should be made on the basis of definite, clearly appreciated needs. While pupils having college entrance in view might well begin the study of a foreign language in the seventh grade, those expecting early to enter industry should elect an industrial subject instead, and those inclined toward commercial work should have opportunity to begin work preparatory to this field rather than take industrial studies or those leading primarily to college entrance. With each succeeding year, the number of elective courses in each field should be increased so that the pupil may approach the time of entrance upon his vocation with increasing emphasis upon the life career motive. The junior high school with its flexible courses of study is the response which the schools are formulating to meet this situation. The plan promises much for the period of early adolescence.

(4) THE LIBERAL ARTS SUBJECTS SHOULD BE MODERNIZED

To modernize education in general, there is need for a very marked reorganization of the usual academic subjects throughout the public school system to make them all contribute more directly to the solution of problems of present day life. History, civics, geography, English, mathematics, and science studies may all select those problems and aspects of their respective fields which throw light upon or which are practically usable in the occupations of people engaged in productive or distributive enterprise.

(5) THE LATER YEARS OF HIGH SCHOOL SHOULD BE VOCATIONAL

The latter years of the high school period, those coming to be known as the senior high school, representing the years of life between fourteen or fifteen and seventeen or eighteen, may well be organized as definitely vocational, or at least dominantly influenced in their organization by vocational motives. This organization, broadly considered, would include a liberal arts division, made up to meet the needs of those preparing for higher institutions and chiefly having in prospect entrance into professional callings; an industrial division, organized to give preparation as intensive as possible for industrial callings to be entered immediately upon leaving school; a commercial division to prepare for immediate entrance to callings in the commercial field; and an agricultural division for similar preparation for entrance upon agricultural work. In each of these divisions there may well be organizations of courses primarily to meet the needs of women desiring to enter wageearning occupations. It is assumed that all girls will regard as fundamental a preparation for home making, and that, whatever other vocational motive may determine their selection of work, they will include home-making courses as an essential supplementary group of studies. It is also assumed that parallel with the vocational studies in each of these divisions there will be a well balanced selection of liberal arts subjects organized in terms of the civic and social needs of present day life. In each division, also, a selection of courses should be possible which would make a foundation for entrance into still more advanced study of the chosen field in colleges or technical institutions. While such a fully comprehensive plan is not possible to all communities, each community may select groups of studies for emphasis which meet its own