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volence, but from self-love. No man but a beggar depends on benevolence, and even they would die in a week were their entire dependence upon it.

5. Lectures, pp. 9 sqq. Deux principes, selon d'Adam Smith, rendent compte de l'origine des gouvernements : le principe de l'utilité et le principe d'autorité (respect du plus fort, du plus âgé, du plus riche). — Principe lui-même émané « from our sympathy with our superiors: being greater than that with our equals or inferiors: we admire their happy situation, enter into it with pleasure, and endeavour to promote it ». — p. 136 Injury naturally excites the resentment of the spectator, and the punishment of the offender is reasonable as far as the indifferent spectator can go along with it. This is the natural measure of punishment. It is to be observed that our first approbation of punishment is not founded upon the regard to public utility which is commonly taken to be the foundation of it. It is our sympathy with the resentment of the sufferer which is the real principe.

6. W. of N. Book II, chap. 1, vol. I, p. 344.

7. W. of N. Book IV, chap. ; vol. II, p. 26: Every individual is continually exerting himself to find out the most advantageous employment for whatever capital he can demand. It is his own advantage, indeed, and not that of the society he has in view. But the study of his own advantage naturally, or rather necessarily, leads him to prefer that employment which is most advantageous to society. Cf. Book II, chap. ; vol. I, p. 346: The uniform, constant, and uninterrupted effort of every man to better his condition. - Book IV, chap. Ix; vol. II, p. 258: the natural effort which every man is continually making to better his own condition. Cf. Lectures, p. 11: In a man of a bold, daring and bustling turn the principle of utility is predominant, and a peaceable easy turn of mind usually is pleased with a tame submission to superiority. p. 168: It was indeed made a law by Sesostris that every man should follow the employment of his father, but this is by no means suitable to the dispositions of human nature, and can never long take place; every one is fond of being a gentleman, be his father what he would. They who are strongest and, in the bustle of society, have got above the weak, must have as many under as to defend them in their station.

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8. Adam Smith constate, par exemple, le rôle important joué, dans la formation de la civilisation moderne, par les grands propriétaires fonciers et les marchands, c'est-à-dire par deux classes d'hommes qui n'avaient pas la moindre intention de servir le public: W. of N. Book III, chap. IV; vol. I, p. 418: To gratify the most childish vanity was the sole motive of the great proprietors. The merchants and artificers, much less ridiculous, acted merely from a view to their own interest and in pursuit of their own pedlar principle of turning a penny wherever a penny was to be got. Neither of them had either knowledge or foresight of that great revolution, which the folly of the one and the industry of the other was gradually

bringing about. De même encore, c'est dans une animosité nationale qu'il faut chercher la cause psychologique de l'Acte de Navigation (W. of N. Book IV, chap. II; vol. II, pp. 36-37): les dispositions s'en trouvent pourtant être aussi sages que si elles avaient été dictées par la sagesse la plus réfléchie. De même encore (W. of N. Book II, chap. ш; vol I. pp. 350-1), il y a deux manières de dépenser, l'une en choses immédiatement consommées, l'autre en choses durables: la seconde plus favorable que la première au progrès de la richesse sociale. Mais Adam Smith ajoute: I would not, however, by all this be understood to mean, that the one species of expense always betokens a more liberal or generous spirit than the other. When a man of fortune spends his revenue chiefly in hospitality, he shares the greater part of it with his friends and companions; but when he employs it in purchasing such durable commodities, he often spends the whole upon his own person and gives nothing to anybody without an equivalent. The latter species of expense, therefore, especially when directed towards frivolous objects, the little ornaments of dress and furniture, jewels, trinkets, gewgaws, freshly indicates, not only a trifling, but a base and selfish disposition. All that I mean is, that the one sort of expense, as it always occasions some accumulation of valuable commodities, as it is more favourable to private frugality, and consequently, to the increase of the public capital, and as it maintains productive, rather than unproductive hands, conduces more than the other to the growth of public opulence. — Enfin, et d'une façon plus générale, l'individu qui cherche un emploi industriel de son capital se préoccupe du profit qu'il en tirera, non de la quantité de travail productif qui est mise en mouvement par ce capital. Il se trouve cependant que la préoccupation de l'intérêt personnel se trouve coïncider avec la préoccupation de l'intérêt public. Par exemple, chaque individu tend, par égoïsme, à employer son capital aussi près de lui que possible: or tout individu qui emploie son capital à entretenir l'industrie nationale tend nécessairement à diriger l'industrie de manière que le produit en présente la plus grande valeur possible. « He generally, indeed neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest, he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it ».

9. W. of N., première phrase de l'Introduction.

10. W. of N., Book I, chap. 1; vol. I, pp. 5 sqq. - Cf. Lectures, pp. 163

sqq.

11. A System of Moral Philosophy, Book II, chap. Iv; § 5. Sur Hutcheson comme précurseur d'Adam Smith économiste, v. Cannan, Introduction aux Lectures, pp. XXV-XXVI, et William Robert Scott, Francis Hutcheson, pp. 230 sqq. Hutcheson fut le maître et le prédécesseur d'Adam Smith, dans sa chaire de philosophie morale à Glasgow.

12. Treatise, Book III, Part II, Sect. II (ed. Green, vol. II, p. 259). 13. W. of N., Book I, chap. II; vol. I, pp. 14 sqq. Dans ses Institutes of Moral Philosophy, Adam Ferguson donne une théorie de la division du travail, qui est en somme identique à la théorie d'Adam Smith; mais Ferguson avait subi l'influence de Smith (Rae, life of Adam Smith, pp. 258,264). Même observation sur les curieuses notes prises par lord Shelburne en 1766 au sujet de la fabrication des boutons à Birmingham : instead of employing the same hand to finish a button or any other thing, they subdivide it into as many different hands as possible, finding beyond doubt that the human faculties by being confined to a repetition of the same thing become more expeditious and more to be depended on than when obliged or suffered to pass from one to another. Thus a button passes through fifty hands, and each hand perhaps passes a thousand in a day likewise, by this means, the work becomes so simple that, five times in six, children of six or eight years old do it as well as men, and earn from ten pence to eight shillings a week ». (life of lord Shelburne, vol. I, pp. 402-5). Mais lord Shelburne était, depuis 1761, en relations personnelles avec Adam Smith (Rae, life of Smith, p. 153). - Priestley, dans son Essay de 1768, attache beaucoup d'importance, dans sa théorie du progrès, au principe de la division du travail. Mss. Univ. Coll. n° 87: dans une note du manuscrit intitulé Indirect Legislation, Bentham écrit: In a fair bargain, as hath been very ingeniously observed by the Abbé de Condillac, each party is a gainer; each party by parting with that which in his estimation is worth less, acquires what in his estimation is worth more. If this were not the case, they would act each of them without a motive ». (« Le Commerce et le Gouvernement considérés relativement l'un à l'autre », Amst., 1776, 12m).

14. W. of N., Book I, chap. Iv; vol. I, p. 29.

15. W. of N., Book I, chap. v; vol I, p. 32.

16. Valeur et equivalent, mots synonymes dans la langue d'Adam Smith: W. of N., Book IV, chap. vII; vol. II, p. 172: Those commodities of America are new values, new equivalents, introduced into Hungary and Poland, to be exchanged there for the surplus produce of those countries.

17. W. of N., Book I, chap. Iv; vol. I, p.

31.

18. W. of N., Book I, chap. vi; vol. I, p. 49. 176; W. of N.. Book I, chap. v; vol. I, p. 32.

Cf. Lectures, pp. 173-4,

19. W. of N., Book I, chap. x; vol. I, pp. 103-4. 20. W. of N., Book I, chap. x1; vol I, pp. 227-8.

- 21. Devoirs de l'homme et du citoyen, tels qu'ils lui sont prescrits par la loi naturelle, trad. Barbeyrac, liv. I, chap. XIV, § 3-4. Pufendorf ajoute: « Il y a aussi diverses circonstances qui augmentent le prix du travail et de toutes les actions qui entrent en commerce, par exemple la peine qu'elles demandent, et la difficulté qu'il y a de les faire; l'habileté et l'adresse qu'il faut pour y réussir; leur utilité; la nécessité de ceux en faveur de qui l'on emploie ses soins et son industrie; le petit nombre de gens qui se mêlent de faire de pareilles choses; le caractère ou la dignité de celui qui agit, comme aussi la liberté où il était de s'en dispenser; le le cas qu'on fait dans le monde d'un art ou d'une profession, etc. — Par « prix propre et intrinsèque », Barbeyrac traduit le pretium vulgare opposé par Pufendorf au pretium eminens (évalué en monnaie).

22. Moral Philosophy, Book II, chap. XII, 1.

23. Of Civil Government, Book II, chap. v, § 40. 24. W of N., Book I. chap. vIII; vol. I, p. 67. 25. W. of N. Book I, chap. xi vol. I, p. 181. 26. W. of N. Book IV. chap. v; vol. II, p. 116. 27. W. of N., Book IV, chap. v; vol. II, p. 107.

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28. W. of N., Book IV, chap. vii; vol. II, p. 162. — Cf. Book I, chap. x, (il s'agit de la loi des «settlements »): To remove a man who has committed no misdemeanour from the parish where he chooses to reside, is an evident violation of natural liberty and justice.

29. W. of N., Book IV, chap. Ix; vol. II, p. 247. Cf. p. 254: The establishment of perfect justice, of perfect liberty, and of perfect equality.

30. W. of N., Book I, chap. vi; vol. I. p. 49.

31. W. of N., Book I, chap. vII; vol. I, pp. 60-1: In some employments the same quantity of industry will in different years produce very different quantities of commodities; while in others it will produce always the same, or very nearly the same... It is only the average produce of the one species of industry which can be suited in any respect to the effectual demand. - Book I, chap. vi; vol. I, pp. 47-8: The merchant importers (of gold and silver), like all other merchants we may believe, endeavour as well as they can, to suit their occasional importations to what they judge is likely to be the immediate demand. With all their attention however they sometimes overdo the business, and sometimes underdo it. When they import more bullion than is wanted, rather than incur the risk and trouble of exporting it again, they are sometimes willing to sell a part of it for something less than the ordinary or average price. When, on the other hand, they import less than is wanted, they get something more than this price.

Cf. Book I. chap.

32. W. of N., Book I, chap. vII; vol. I, pp. 59-60. 33. W. of N., Book IV, chap. v; vol. II, p. 213. VII; vol. I, pp. 59-60; — Book III, chap. 1, vol. I, p. 382. 34. W. of N., Book IV, chap. 1; vol. II, p. 8 (métaux précieux). 35. W. of N., Book II, chap. v; vol. I, p. 365. p. 103.

- Book I, chap. x; vol. I,

36. W. of N., Book II, chap. 1; vol. I, p. 294. Cf. Hume, Essay VI, on the Independency of Parliament (Essays vol. I, p. 119).

37. W. of N. Book IV, chap. v; vol. II, p. 111.

38. W. of N. Book I, chap. vII; vol. I, p. 60. — The natural price..... is, as it were, the central price, to which the prices of all commodities are continually gravitating. – P. 62 : ... though the market price of every particular commodity is in this manner continually gravitating, if one may say so, towards the natural price... Hume avait employé la même métaphore, dans son essai On the Balance of Trade: It is evident, that the same causes which would correct these exorbitant inequalities, were they to happen miraculously, must prevent their happening in the common course of nature, and must for ever, in all neighbouring nations, preserve money nearly proportionable to the art and industry of each nation. All water, wherever it communicates, remains always at a level. Ask naturalists the reason; they tell you that, were it to be raised in any one place, the superior gravity of that part, not being balanced, must depress it, till it meets a counterpoise; and that the same cause, which redresses the inequality when it happens must for ever prevent it, without some violent and external operation. Et plus bas We need not have recourse to a physical attraction, in order to explain the necessity of this operation. There is a moral attraction, arising from the interests and passions of men, which is full as potent and infallible. Le « naturel » se confond dès lors avec le « nécessaire ». W. of N. Book IV, chap. vi; vol. II, p. 208: naturally, or rather necessarily.

p.

49 sqq.

39. W. of N. Book I, chap. vi; vol. I.
40. W. of N. Book I, chap. vII; vol. I, p. 57.

41. W. of N. Book IV, chap. vIL; vol. II, p. 145. Nous traduisons, par le mot « classe », le mot order employé par Adam Smith.

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42. W. of N. Book I, chap. xI; vol. I, p. 264. Book IV, chap. vII; vol. II, p. 180. - Car « le grand objet de l'économie politique, c'est d'accroître la richesse et le pouvoir » d'un pays déterminé (Book II, chap. v; vol. I, p. 377). Mais comment l'accroître sans améliorer la condition de la classe la plus nombreuse? « Servants, labourers, and workmen of different kinds make up the far greater part of every great political society. But what improves the circumstances of the greater part can never be regarded as an inconveniency to the whole. No society can surely be flourishing and happy, of which the far greater part of the members are poor and mise

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