branch, more work is done upon the whole, and the quantity of science is considerably increased by it.

It is the great multiplication of the productions of all the different arts, in consequence of the division of labour, which occasions, in a well-governed society, that universal opuíence which extends itself to the lowest ranks of the people. Every workman has a great quantity of his own work to dispose of beyond what he himself has occasion for; and every other workman being exactly in the same situation, he is enabled to exchange a great quantity of his own goods for a great quantity, or, what comes to the same thing, for the price of a great quantity of theirs. He supplies them abundantly with what they have occasion for, and they accommodate him as amply with what he has occasion for, and a general plenty diffuses itself through all the different ranks of the society.

ery. It is unnecessary to give any example. is subdivided into a great nuniber of different I shall only observe, therefore, that the inven-branches, each of which affords occupation to 'ion of all those machines by which labour is a peculiar tribe or class of philosophers; and much facilitated and abridged, seems to this subdivision of employment in philosophy, have been originally owing to the division of as well as in every other business, improves labour. Men are much more likely to dis- dexterity, and saves time. Each individual cover easier and readier methods of attaining becomes more expert in his own peculiar any object, when the whole attention of their minds is directed towards that single object, than when it is dissipated among a great variety of things. But, in consequence of the division of labour, the whole of every man's attention comes naturally to be directed towards some one very simple object. It is naturally to be expected, therefore, that some one or other of those who are employed in each particular branch of labour should soon find out easier and readier methods of performing their own particular work, wherever the nature of it admits of such improvement. A great part of the machines made use of in those manufactures in which labour is most subdivided, were originally the inventions of common workmen, who, being each of them employed in some very simple operation, naturally turned their thoughts towards finding out easier and readier methods of performing it. Whoever has been much accustomed to visit such manufactures, must frequently have Observe the accommodation of the most been shewn very pretty machines, which were common artificer or day-labourer in a civilized the inventions of such workmen, in order to and thriving country, and you will perceive facilitate and quicken their own particular that the number of people, of whose industry part of the work. In the first fire engines, a a part, though but a small part, has been emboy was constantly employed to open and ployed in procuring him this accommodation, shut alternately the communication between exceeds all computation. The woollen coat, the boiler and the cylinder, according as the for example, which covers the day-labourer, piston either ascended or descended. One of as coarse and rough as it may appear, is the those boys, who loved to play with his companions, observed that, by tying a string from the handle of the valve which opened this communication to another part of the machine, the valve would open and shut without his assistance, and leave him at liberty to divert himself with his play-fellows. One of the greatest improvements that has been made upon this machine, since it was first invented, was in this manner the discovery of a boy who wanted to save his own labour.

How

produce of the joint labour of a great multitude of workmen. The shepherd, the sorter of the wool, the wool-comber or carder, the dyer, the scribbler, the spinner, the weaver, the fuller, the dresser, with many others, must all join their different arts in order to complete even this homely production. many merchants and carriers, besides, must have been employed in transporting the materials from some of those workmen to others who often live in a very distant part of the All the improvements in machinery, how-country? How much commerce and naviga ever, have by no means been the inventions tion in particular, how many ship-builders, of those who had occasion to use the machines. sailors, sail-makers, rope-makers, must have Many improvements have been made by the been employed in order to bring together the ingenuity of the makers of the machines, different drugs made use of by the dyer, which when to make them became the business of a often come from the remotest corners of the peculiar trade; and some by that of those world? What a variety of labour, too, is newho are called philosophers, or men of specu-cessary in order to produce the tools of the lation, whose trade it is not to do any thing, meanest of those workmen! To say nothing but to observe every thing, and who, upon of such complicated machines as the ship of that account, are often capable of combining the sailor, the mill of the fuller, or even the together the powers of the most distant and loom of the weaver, let us consider only what dissimilar objects. In the progress of society, a variety of labour is requisite in order to philosophy or speculation becomes, like every form that very simple machine, the shears with other employment, the principal or sole trade which the shepherd clips the wool. The miand occupation of a particular class of citi-ner, the builder of the furnace for smelting Like every other employment, too, it the ore, the feller of the timber, the burner c

zens.

the charcoal to be made use of in the smelting-| view no such extensive utility; the propensay house, the brickmaker, the bricklayer, the to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for workmen who attend the furnace, the mill- another. wright, the forger, the smith, must all of them Whether this propensity be one of those orijoin their different arts in order to produce ginal principles in human nature, of which unơ them. Were we to examine, in the same further account can be given, or whether, as manner, all the different parts of his dress and seems more probable, it be the necessary conhousehold furniture, the coarse linen shirt sequence of the faculties of reason and speech, which he wears next his skin, the shoes which it belongs not to our present subject to incover his feet, the bed which he lies on, and quire. It is common to all men, and to be all the different parts which compose it, the found in no other race of animals, which seem kitchen-grate at which he prepares his victuals, to know neither this nor any other species of the coals which he makes use of for that pur- contracts. Two greyhounds, in running down pose, dug from the bowels of the earth, and the same hare, have sometimes the appearance brought to him, perhaps, by a long sea and a of acting in some sort of concert. Each turns long land-carriage, all the other utensils of his her towards his companion, or endeavours to kitchen, all the furniture of his table, the intercept her when his companion turns her knives and forks, the earthen or pewter plates towards himself. This, however, is not the upon which he serves up and divides his effect of any contract, but of the accidental victuals, the different hands employed in pre-concurrence of their passions in the same obparing his bread and his beer, the glass win-ject at that particular time. Nobody ever saw dow which lets in the heat and the light, and a dog make a fair and deliberate exchange of keeps out the wind and the rain, with all the one bone for another with another dog. Noknowledge and art requisite for preparing that body ever saw one animal, by its gestures and beautiful and happy invention, without which natural cries signify to another, this is mine, these northern parts of the world could scarce that yours; I am willing to give this for that. have afforded a very comfortable habitation, When an animal wants to obtain something together with the tools of all the different either of a man, or of another animal, it has workmen employed in producing those differ- no other means of persuasion, but to gain the ent conveniencies; if we examine, I say, all favour of those whose service it requires. A these things, and consider what a variety of puppy fawns upon its dam, and a spaniel enlabour is employed about each of them, we deavours, by a thousand attractions, to engage shall be sensible that, without the assistance the attention of its master who is at dinner, and co-operation of many thousands, the very when it wants to be fed by him. Man somemeanest person in a civilized country could times uses the same arts with his brethren, not be provided, even according to, what we and when he has no other means of engaging very falsely imagine, the easy and simple man- them to act according to his inclinations, enner in which he is commonly accommodated.deavours by every servile and fawning attenCompared, indeed, with the more extravagant tion to obtain their good will. He has not luxury of the great, his accommodation must time, however, to do this upon every occasion. no doubt appear extremely simple and easy; and yet it may be true, perhaps, that the accommodation of an European prince does not always so much exceed that of an industrious and frugal peasant, as the accommodation of sons. In almost every other race of animals, the latter exceeds that of many an African king, the absolute masters of the lives and liberties of ten thousand naked savages.

CHAP II.

In civilized society he stands at all times in need of the co-operation and assistance of great multitudes, while his whole life is scarce sufficient to gain the friendship of a few per

each individual, when it is grown up to maturity, is entirely independent, and in its natural state has occasion for the assistance of no other living creature. But man has almost constant occasion for the help of his brethren, and it is in vain for him to expect it from their benevolence only. He will be more likely to | prevail if he can interest their self-love in his favour, and shew them that it is for their own advantage to do for him what he requires of

OF THE PRINCIPLE WHICH GIVES OCCASION TO them. Whoever offers to another a bargain

THE DIVISION OF LABOUR.

of any kind, proposes to do this. Give me that which I want, and you shall have this THIS division of labour, from which so many which you want, is the meaning of every advantages are derived, is not originally the such offer; and it is in this manner that effect of any human wisdom, which foresees we obtain from one another the far greater and intends that general opulence to which it part of those good offices which we stand gives occasion. It is the necessary, though in need of. It is not from the benevolence very slow and gradual, consequence of a cer- of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker tain propensity in human nature, which has in that we expect our dinner, but from their re

gard to their own interest. We address our-ressions, when grown up to maturity, is not selves, not to their humanity, but to their self-upon many occasions so much the cause, as love, and never talk to them of our own ne- the erect of the division of labour. The cessities, but of their advantages. Nobody dierence between the most dissimilar characbut a beggar chooses to depend chiefly upon ters, between a philosopher and a common the benevolence of his fellow-citizens. Even street porter, for example, seems to arise not a beggar does not depend upon it entirely. so much from nature, as from habit, custom, The charity of well-disposed people, indeed, and education. When they came into the supplies him with the whole fund of his sub-world, and for the first six or eight years of sistence. But though this principle ulti- their existence, they were, perhaps, very much mately provides him with all the necessaries of alike, and neither their parents nor playfellows life which he has occasion for, it neither does could perceive any remarkable difference. nor can provide him with them as he has oc- About that age, or soon after, they come to casion for them. The greater part of his oc- be employed in very different occupations. casional wants are supplied in the same man- The difference of talents comes then to be ner as those of other people, by treaty, by bar- taken notice of, and widens by degrees, till at ter, and by purchase. With the money which last the vanity of the philosopher is willing to one man gives him he purchases food. The acknowledge scarce any resemblance. old clothes which another bestows upon him he exchanges for other clothes which suit him better, or for lodging, or for food, or for money, with which he can buy either food, clothes, or lodging, as he has occasion.

lents.

But

without the disposition to truck, barter, and exchange, every man must have procured to himself every necessary and conveniency of life which he wanted. All must have had the same duties to perform, and the same As it is by treaty, by barter, and by pur-work to do, and there could have been no chase, that we obtain from one another the such difference of employment as could alone greater part of those mutual good offices which give occasion to any great difference of tawe stand in need of, so it is this same trucking disposition which originally gives occasion to As it is this disposition which forms that the division of labour. In a tribe of hunters difference of talents, so remarkable among or shepherds, a particular person makes bows men of different professions, so it is this same and arrows, for example, with more readiness disposition which renders that difference useand dexterity than any other. He frequently ful. Many tribes of animals, acknowledged exchanges them for cattle or for venison, with to be all of the same species, derive from nahis companions; and he finds at last that he ture a much more remarkable distinction of can, in this manner, get more cattle and veni- genius, than what, antecedent to custom and son, than if he himself went to the field to education, appears to take place among men. catch them. From a regard to his own in- By nature a philosopher is not in genius and terest, therefore, the making of bows and disposition half so different from a street porarrows grows to be his chief business, and he ter, as a mastiff is from a grey-hound, or a becomes a sort of armourer. Another excels grey-hound from a spaniel, or this last from a in making the frames and covers of their little shepherd's dog. Those different tribes of anihuts or moveable houses. He is accustomed mals, however, though all of the same species, to be of use in this way to his neighbours, are of scarce any use to one another. The who reward him in the same manner with strength of the mastiff is not in the least supcattle and with venison, till at last he finds it ported either by the swiftness of the greyhis interest to dedicate himself entirely to this hound, or by the sagacity of the spaniel, or by employment, and to become a sort of house- the docility of the shepherd's dog. The effects carpenter. In the same manner a third be- of those different geniuses and talents, for comes a smith or a brazier; a fourth, a tan- want of the power or disposition to barter and ner or dresser of hides or skins, the principal exchange, cannot be brought into a common part of the clothing of savages. And thus stock, and do not in the least contribute to the the certainty of being able to exchange all better accommodation and conveniency of the that surplus part of the produce of his own la- species. Each animal is still obliged to supbour, which is over and above his own con-port and defend itself, separately and indesumption, for such parts of the produce of pendently, and derives no sort of advantage other men's labour as he may have occasion from that variety of talents with which nature for, encourages every man to apply himself to a particular occupation, and to cultivate and bring to perfection whatever talent of genius he may possess for that particular species of business.

has distinguished its fellows. Among men, on the contrary, the most dissimilar geniuses are of use to one another; the different produces of their respective talents, by the general disposition to truck, barter, and exchange, The difference of natural talents in differ- being brought, as it were, into a common ent men, is, in reality, much less than we are stock, where every man may purchase whataware of; and the very different genius which ever part of the produce of other men's talent appears to distinguish men of different pro- he has occasion for.

CHAP. III.

THAT THE DIVISION OF LABOUR IS LIMITED
BY THE EXTENT OF THE MARKET.

dustry than what land-carriage alone can afford it, so it is upon the sea-coast, and along the banks of navigable rivers, that industry of every kind naturally begins to subdivide and improve itself, and it is frequently not till a long time after that those improvements extend themselves to the inland parts of the As it is the power of exchanging that gives country. A broad-wheeled waggon, attendoccasion to the division of labour, so the ex-ed by two men, and drawn by eight horses, in tent of this division must always be limited by about six weeks time, carries and brings back the extent of that power, or, in other words, between London and Edinburgh near four by the extent of the market. When the mark-ton weight of goods. In about the same et is very small, no person can have any en-time a ship navigated by six or eight men, couragement to dedicate himself entirely to and sailing between the ports of London and one employment, for want of the power to exchange all that surplus part of the produce of his own labour, which is over and above his own consumption, for such parts of the produce of other men's labour as he has occasion for.

Leith, frequently carries and brings back two hundred ton weight of goods. Six or eight men, therefore, by the help of water-carriage, can carry and bring back, in the same time, the same quantity of goods between London and Edinburgh as fifty broad-wheeled wagThere are some sorts of industry, even of gons, attended by a hundred men, and drawn the lowest kind, which can be carried on no- by four hundred horses. Upon two hundred where but in a great town. A porter, for ex- tons of goods, therefore, carried by the cheapample, can find employment and subsistence est land-carriage from London to Edinburgh, in no other place. A village is by much too there must be charged the maintenance of a narrow a sphere for him; even an ordinary hundred men for three weeks, and both the market-town is scarce large enough to afford maintenance, and what is nearly equal to him constant occupation. In the lone houses maintenance, the wear and tear of four hundand very small villages which are scattered red horses, as well as of fifty great waggons. about in so desert a country as the highlands Whereas, upon the same quantity of goods of Scotland, every farmer must be butcher, carried by water, there is to be charged only baker, and brewer, for his own family. In the maintenance of six or eight men, and the such situations we can scarce expect to find wear and tear of a ship of two hundred tons even a smith, a carpenter, or a mason, within burthen, together with the value of the supeless than twenty miles of another of the same rior risk, or the difference of the insurance trade. The scattered families that live at between land and water-carriage. Were there eight or ten miles distance from the nearest no other communication between those two of them, must learn to perform themselves a places, therefore, but by land-carriage, as no great number of little pieces of work, for goods could be transported from the one to which, in more populous countries, they the other, except such whose price was very would call in the assistance of those work-considerable in proportion to their weight, men. Country workmen are almost every-they could carry on but a small part of that where obliged to apply themselves to all the commerce which at present subsists between different branches of industry that have so them, and consequently could give but a small much affinity to one another as to be employ-part of that encouragement which they at ed about the same sort of materials. A coun- present mutually afford to each other's intry carpenter deals in every sort of work that dustry. There could be little or no comis made of wood; a country smith in every merce of any kind between the distant parts sort of work that is made of iron. The for- of the world. What goods could bear the mer is not only a carpenter, but a joiner, a expense of land-carriage between London and cabinet-maker, and even a carver in wood, as Calcutta? Or if there were any so precious as well as a wheel-wright, a plough-wright, a to be able to support this expense, with what cart and waggon-maker. The employments of the latter are still more various. It is impossible there should be such a trade as even that of a nailer in the remote and inland parts of the highlands of Scotland. Such a workman at the rate of a thousand nails a-day, and three hundred working days in the year, will make three hundred thousand nails in the Since such, therefore, are the advantages of year. But in such a situation it would be water-carriage, it is natural that the first imimpossible to dispose of one thousand, that is,provements of art and industry should be of one day's work in the year made where this conveniency opens the whole As by means of water-carriage, a more ex-world for a market to the produce of every tensive market is opened to every sort of in-sort of labour, and that they should always be

safety could they be transported through the territories of so many barbarous nations? Those two cities, however, at present carry on a very considerable commerce with each other, and by mutually affording a market, give a good deal of encouragement to each other's industry.

much later in extending themselves into the inland parts of the country. The inland parts of the country can for a long time have no other market for the greater part of their goods, but the country which lies round about them, and separates them from the sea-coast, and the great navigable rivers. The extent of the market, therefore, must for a long time be in proportion to the riches and populousness of that country, and consequently their improvement must always be posterior to the improvement of that country. In our North American colonies, the plantations have constantly followed either the sea-coast or the banks of the navigable rivers, and have scarce anywhere extended themselves to any considerable distance from both.

of this antiquity is not authenticated by any histories of whose authority we, in this part of the world, are well assured. In Bengal, the Ganges, and several other great rivers, form a great number of navigable canals, in the same manner as the Nile does in Egypt. In the eastern provinces of China, too, several great rivers form, by their different branches, a multitude of canals, and, by communicating with one another, afford an inland navigation much more extensive than that either of the Nile or the Ganges, or, perhaps, than both of them put together. It is remarkable, that neither the ancient Egyptians, nor the Indians, nor the Chinese, encouraged foreign commerce, but seem all to have derived their great opulence from this inland navigation.

The nations that, according to the best au- All the inland parts of Africa, and all that thenticated history, appear to have been first part of Asia which lies any considerable way civilized, were those that dwelt round the coast north of the Euxine and Caspian seas, the anof the Mediterranean sea. That sea, by far cient Scythia, the modern Tartary and Sibethe greatest inlet that is known in the world, ria, seem, in all ages of the world, to have having no tides, nor consequently any waves, been in the same barbarous and uncivilized except such as are caused by the wind only, state in which we find them at present. The was, by the smoothness of its surface, as well sea of Tartary is the frozen ocean, which adas by the multitude of its islands, and the mits of no navigation; and though some of proximity of its neighbouring shores, extreme- the greatest rivers in the world run through ly favourable to the infant navigation of the that country, they are at too great a distance world; when, from their ignorance of the from one another to carry commerce and comcompass, men were afraid to quit the view of munication through the greater part of it. the coast, and from the imperfection of the art There are in Africa none of those great inof ship-building, to abandon themselves to the lets, such as the Baltic and Adriatic seas in boisterous waves of the ocean. To pass beyond Europe, the Mediterranean and Euxine seas the pillars of Hercules, that is, to sail out of in both Europe and Asia, and the gulfs of the straits of Gibraltar, was, in the ancient Arabia, Persia, India, Bengal, and Siam, in world, long considered as a most wonderful Asia, to carry maritime commerce into the inand dangerous exploit of navigation. It was terior parts of that great continent; and the late before even the Phoenicians and Cartha- great rivers of Africa are at too great a disginians, the most skilful navigators and ship-tance from one another to give occasion to any builders of those old times, attempted it; and they were, for a long time, the only nations that did attempt it.

considerable inland navigation. The commerce, besides, which any nation can carry on by means of a river which does not break itself into any great number of branches or canals, and which runs into another territory be

siderable, because it is always in the power of the nations who possess that other territory to obstruct the communication between the upper country and the sca. The navigation of the Danube is of very little use to the different states of Bavaria, Austria, and Hungary, in comparison of what it would be, if any of them possessed the whole of its course, till it falls into the Black sea.

Of all the countries on the coast of the Mediterranean sea, Egypt seems to have been the first in which either agriculture or manufac-fore it reaches the sea, can never be very contures were cultivated and improved to any considerable degree. Upper Egypt extends itself nowhere above a few miles from the Nile; and in Lower Egypt, that great river breaks itself into many different canals, which, with the assistance of a little art, seem to have afforded a communication by water-carriage, not only between all the great towns, but between all the considerable villages, and even to many farm-houses in the country, nearly in the same manner as the Rhine and the Maese do in Holland at present. The extent and easiness of this inland navigation was probably one of the principal causes of the early improvement of Egypt.

The improvements in agriculture and manufactures seem likewise to have been of very great antiquity in the provinces of Bengal in the East Indies, and in some of the eastern provinces of China, though the great extent

CHAP. IV.

OF THE ORIGIN AND USE OF MONEY.

WHEN the division of labour has been once thoroughly established, it is but a very small