III. BOOK no bounds to his expence, because he frequently has no bounds to his vanity, or to his affection for his own perfon. In commercial countries, therefore, riches, in spite of the most violent regulations of law to prevent their diffipation, very feldom remain long in the fame family. Among fimple nations, on the contrary, they frequently do without any regulations of law: for among nations of fhepherds, fuch as the Tartars and Arabs, the confumable nature of their property neceffarily renders all fuch regulations impoffible. A revolution of the greatest importance to the public happiness, was in this manner brought about by two different orders of people, who had not the leaft intention to ferve the public. To gratify the moft childish vanity was the fole motive of the great proprietors. The merchants and artificers, much lefs ridiculous, acted merely from a view to their own intereft, and in purfuit of their own pedlar principle of turning a penny wherever a penny was to be got. Neither of them had either knowledge or forefight of that great revolution which the folly of the one, and the industry of the other, was gradually bringing about. It is thus that through the greater part of Europe the commerce and manufactures of cities, inftead of being the effect, have been the caufe and occafion of the improvement and cultivation of the country. This order, however, being contrary to the natural courfe of things, is neceflarily both flow and uncertain. Compare the flow progrefs of IV. thofe European countries of which the wealth c HA P. depends very much upon their commerce and manufactures, with the rapid advances of our North American colonies, of which the wealth is founded altogether in agriculture. Through the greater part of Europe, the number of inhabitants is not fuppofed to double in less than five hundred years. In feveral of our North American colonies, it is found to double in twenty or five-and-twenty years. In Europe, the law of primogeniture, and perpetuities of different kinds, prevent the divifion of great estates, and thereby hinder the multiplication of fmall proprietors. A finall proprietor, however, who knows every part of his little territory, views it with all the affection which property, especially finall property, naturally infpires, and who upon that account takes pleasure not only in cultivating but in adorning it, is generally of all improvers the moft induftrious, the moft intelligent, and the moft fuccefsful. The fame regulations, befides, keep fo much land out of the market, that there are always more capitals to buy than there is land to fell, fo that what is fold always fells at a monopoly price. The rent never pays the intereft of the purchase-money, and is befides burdened with repairs and other occafional charges, to which the intereft of money is not liable. To purchase land is every-where in Europe a most unprofitable employment of a small capital. For the fake of the fuperior fecurity, indeed, a man of moderate circumftances, when he retires from bufinefs, will fometimes chufe to lay out BOOK his little capital in land. A man of profeffion III. too, whofe revenue is derived from another fource, often loves to fecure his favings in the fame way. But a young man, who, instead of applying to trade or to fome profeffion, should employ a capital of two or three thousand pounds in the purchase and cultivation of a small piece of land, might indeed expect to live very happily, and very independently, but must bid adieu, for ever, to all hope of either great fortune or great illustration, which by a different employment of his flock he might have had the fame chance of acquiring with other people. Such a perfon too, though he cannot afpire at being a proprietor, will often difdain to be a farmer. The fmall quantity of land, therefore, which is brought to market, and the high price of what is brought thither, prevents a great number of capitals from being employed in its cultivation. and improvement which would otherwife have taken that direction. In North America, on the contrary, fifty or fixty pounds is often found a fufficient flock to begin a plantation with. The purchafe and improvement of uncultivated fand, is there the most profitable employment of the finalleft as well as of the greateft capitals, and the moft direct road to all the fortune and illuftration which can be acquired in that country. Such land, indeed, is in North America to be had almoft for nothing, or at a price much below the value of the natural produce; a thing impoffible in Europe, or, indeed, in any country where all lands have long been private IV. private property. If landed eftates, however, CHAP. were divided equally among all the children, upon the death of any proprietor who left a numerous family, the eftate would generally be fold. So much land would come to market, that it could no longer fell at a monopoly price. The free rent of the land would go nearer to pay the intereft of the purchase-money, and a small capital might be employed in purchafing land as profitably as in any other way. England, on account of the natural fertility of the foil, of the great extent of the fea-coaft in proportion to that of the whole country, and of the many navigable rivers which run through it, and afford the conveniency of water carriage to fome of the most inland parts of it, is perhaps as well fitted by nature as any large country in Europe, to be the feat of foreign commerce, of manufactures for diftant fale, and of all the improvements which thefe can occafion. From the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth too, the English legislature has been peculiarly attentive to the interefts of commerce and manufactures, and in reality there is no country in Europe, Holland itself not excepted, of which the law is, upon the whole, more favourable to this fort of industry. Commerce and manufactures have accordingly been continually advancing during all this period. The cultivation and improvement of the country has, no doubt, been gradually advancing too: But it feems to have followed flowly, and at a distance, the more rapid progrefs of commerce and manufactures. The greater III. BOOK part of the country muft probably have been cultivated before the reign of Elizabeth; and a very great part of it ftill remains uncultivated, and the cultivation of the far greater part, much inferior to what it might be. The law of England, however, favours agriculture not only indirectly by the protection of commerce, but by feveral direct encouragements. Except in times of scarcity, the exportation of corn is not only free, but encouraged by a bounty. In times of moderate plenty, the importation of foreign corn is loaded with duties that amount to a prohibition. The importation of live cattle, except from Ireland, is prohibited at all times, and it is but of late that it was permitted from thence. Those who cultivate the land, therefore, have a monopoly against their countrymen for the two greatest and most important articles of land produce, bread and butcher's-meat. Thefe en couragements, though at bottom, perhaps, as I fhall endeavour to fhow hereafter, altogether illufory, fufficiently demonftrate at least the good intention of the legislature to favour agriculture. But what is of much more importance than all of them, the yeomanry of England are rendered as fecure, as independent, and as refpectable as law can make them. No country, therefore, in which the right of primogeniture takes place, which pays tithes, and where perpetuities, though contrary to the fpirit of the law, are admitted in fome cafes, can give more encouragement to agriculture than England. Such, however, notwithstanding, is the ftate of its cultivation. What |