a much greater quantity of that particular sort of animal food. The plenty not only obliges him to sell cheaper, but, in consequence of these improvements, he can afford to sell cheaper; for if he could not afford it, the plenty would not be of long continuance. It has been probably in this manner that the in troduction of clover, turnips, carrots, cabbag es, &c. has contributed to sink the commor price of butcher's meat in the London market, somewhat below what it was about the beginning of the last century.

Great Britain increase as they have done for mer to raise upon the same quantity of ground some time past, its price may very probably rise still higher than it is at present. Between that period in the progress of improvement, which brings to its height the price of so necessary an article as cattle, and that which brings to it the price of such a superfluity as venison, there is a very long interval, in the course of which many other sorts of rude produce gradually arrive at their highest price, some sooner and some later, according to different circumstances.

The hog, that finds his food among ordure, and greedily devours many things rejected by every other useful animal, is, like poultry, originally kept as a save-all. As long as the number of such animals, which can thus be reared at little or no expense, is fully sufficient to supply the demand, this sort of butch⚫

Thus, in every farm, the offals of the barn and stable will maintain a certain number of poultry. These, as they are fed with what would otherwise be lost, are a mere save-all; and as they cost the farmer scarce any thing, so he can afford to sell them for very little. Almost all that he gets is pure gain, and their price can scarce be so low as to discourage him from feeding this number. But in coun-er's meat comes to market at a much lower tries ill cultivated, and therefore but thinly inhabited, the poultry, which are thus raised without expense, are often fully sufficient to supply the whole demand. In this state of things, therefore, they are often as cheap as butcher's meat, or any other sort of animal food. But the whole quantity of poultry which the farm in this manner produces without expense, must always be much smaller than the whole quantity of butcher's meat which is reared upon it; and in times of wealth and luxury, what is rare, with only nearly equal merit, is always preferred to what is common. As wealth and luxury increase, therefore, in consequence of improvement and cultivation, the price of poultry gra. The great rise in the price both of hogs and dually rises above that of butcher's meat, till poultry, has, in Great Britain, been frequentat last it gets so high, that it becomes profit-ly imputed to the diminution of the number able to cultivate land for the sake of feeding of cottagers and other small occupiers of land; them. When it has got to this height, it can- an event which has in every part of Europe not well go higher. If it did, more land been the immediate forerunner of improvewould soon be turned to this purpose. In ment and better cultivation, but which at the several provinces of France, the feeding of same time may have contributed to raise the poultry is considered as a very important ar- price of those articles, both somewhat sooner ticle in rural economy, and sufficiently pro-and somewhat faster than it would otherwise fitable to encourage the farmer to raise a con-have risen. As the poorest family can often siderable quantity of Indian corn and buck-maintain a cat or a dog without any expense, wheat for this purpose. A middling farmer so the poorest occupiers of land can commonwill there sometimes have four hundred fowls ly maintain a few poultry, or a sow and a few in his yard. The feeding of poultry seems pigs, at very little. The little offals of their scarce yet to be generally considered as a mat- own table, their whey, skimmed milk, and ter of so much importance in England. They butter milk, supply those animals with a part are certainly, however, dearer in England than of their food, and they find the rest in the in France, as England receives considerable neighbouring fields, without doing any sensupplies from France. In the progress of im- sible damage to any body. By diminishing provements, the period at which every parti- the number of those small occupiers, there cular sort of animal food is dearest, must na- fore, the quantity of this sort of provisions, turally be that which immediately precedes which is thus produced at little or no expense, the general practice of cultivating land for the must certainly have been a good deal dimi sake of raising it. For some time before this nished, and their price must consequently practice becomes general, the scarcity must have been raised both sooner and faster than necessarily raise the price. After it has be- it would otherwise have risen. Sooner or come general, new methods of feeding are later, however, in the progress of improvecommonly fallen upon, which enable the far-ment, it must at any rate have risen to the

price than any other. But when the demand rises beyond what this quantity can supply, when it becomes necessary to raise food on purpose for feeding and fattening hogs, in the same manner as for feeding and fattening other cattle, the price necessarily rises, and becomes proportionably either higher or lower than that of other butcher's meat, according as the nature of the country, and the state of its agriculture, happen to render the feeding of hogs more or less expensive than that of other cattle. In France, according to Mr Buffon, the price of pork is nearly equal to that of beef. In most parts of Great Britain it is at present somewhat higher.

utmost height to which it is capable of rising; | considerably within these few years, is prob or to the price which pays the labour and ex-ably still too low to admit of it. The inferiopense of cultivating the land which furnishes rity of the quality, indeed, compared with that them with food, as well as these are paid up- of the produce of English dairies, is fully on the greater part of other cultivated land.

equal to that of the price. But this inferio-
rity of quality is, perhaps, rather the effect of
this lowness of price, than the cause of it.
Though the quality was much better, the
greater part of what is brought to market
could not, I apprehend, in the present circum-
stances of the country, be disposed of at a
much better price; and the present price, it
is probable, would not pay the expense of the
land and labour necessary for producing a
much better quality. Through the greater
part of England, notwithstanding the superio
rity of price, the dairy is not reckoned a more
profitable employment of land than the raising
of corn, or the fattening of cattle, the two great
objects of agriculture. Through the greater
part of Scotland, therefore, it cannot yet be
even so profitable.

The business of the dairy, like the feeding of hogs and poultry, is originally carried on as a save-all. The cattle necessarily kept upon the farm produce more milk than either the rearing of their own young, or the consumption of the farmer's family requires; and they produce most at one particular season. But of all the productions of land, milk is perhaps the most perishable. In the warm season, when it is most abundant, it will scarce keep four-and-twenty hours. The farmer, by making it into fresh butter, stores a small part of it for a week; by making it into salt butter, for a year; and by making it into cheese, he stores a much greater part of it for several years. Part of all these is reserved for the use of his own family; the rest goes to market, in order to find the best price which The lands of no country, it is evident, can is to be had, and which can scarce be so low ever be completely cultivated and improved, is to discourage him from sending thither till once the price of every produce, which whatever is over and above the use of his own human industry is obliged to raise upon them, family. If it is very low indeed, he will be has got so high as to pay for the expense of likely to manage his dairy in a very slovenly complete improvement and cultivation. In and dirty manner, and will scarce, perhaps, order to do this, the price of each particular think it worth while to have a particular produce must be sufficient, first, to pay the room or building on purpose for it, but will rent of good corn land, as it is that which resuffer the business to be carried on amidst gulates the rent of the greater part of other the smoke, filth, and nastiness of his own cultivated land; and, secondly, to pay the lakitchen, as was the case of almost all the far-bour and expense of the farmer, as well as ners' dairies in Scotland thirty or forty years they are commonly paid upon good corn land; ago, and as is the case of many of them still. or, in other words, to replace with the ordiThe same causes which gradually raise the nary profits the stock which he employs abou. price of butcher's meat, the increase of the it. This rise in the price of each particular demand, and, in consequence of the improve-produce, must evidently be previous to the ment of the country, the diminution of the improvement and cultivation of the land which quantity which can be fed at little or no ex-is destined for raising it. Gain is the end of pense, raise, in the same manner, that of the all improvement; and nothing could deserve produce of the dairy, of which the price natu- that name, of which loss was to be the necesrally connects with that of butcher's meat, or sary consequence. But loss must be the newith the expense of feeding cattle. The in-cessary consequence of improving land for the crease of price pays for more labour, care, sake of a produce of which the price could and cleanliness. The dairy becomes more never bring back the expense. If the comworthy of the farmer's attention, and the qua-plete improvement and cultivation of the counlity of its produce gradually improves. The try be, as it most certainly is, the greatest of price at last gets so high, that it becomes worth all public advantages, this rise in the price of while to employ some of the most fertile and all those different sorts of rude produce, inbest cultivated lands in feeding cattle merely stead of being considered as a public calamifor the purpose of the dairy; and when it has ty, ought to be regarded as the necessary fore got to this height, it cannot well go higher. runner and attendant of the greatest of all If it did, more land would soon be turned to public advantages. this purpose. It seems to have got to this This rise, too, in the nominal or money height through the greater part of England, price of all those different sorts of rude prowhere much good land is commonly employ- duce, has been the effect, not of any degradaed in this manner. If you except the neigh- tion in the value of silver, but of a rise in bourhood of a few considerable towns, it seems their real price. They have become worth, not yet to have got to this height anywhere in not only a greater quantity of silver, but a Scotland, where common farmers seldom em- greater quantity of labour and subsistence ploy much good land in raising food for cattle, than before. As it costs a greater quantity merely for the purpose of the dairy. The of labour and subsistence to bring them to price of the produce, though it has risen very market, so, when they are brought thither

they represent, or are equivalent to a greater ing further advanced, there is more demand quantity.

If this some

for butcher's meat. Mr Hume observes, that in the Saxon times, the fleece was estimated Third Sort.- -The third and last sort of rude at two-fifths of the value of the whole sheep, produce, of which the price naturally rises in and that this was much above the proportion the progress of improvement, is that in which of its present estimation. In some provinces the efficacy of human industry, in augment- of Spain, I have been assured, the sheep is ing the quantity, is either limited or uncer- frequently killed merely for the sake of the tain. Though the real price of this sort of fleece and the tallow. The carcase is often rude produce, therefore, naturally tends to left to rot upon the ground, or to be devourrise in the progress of improvement, yet, aced by beasts and birds of prey. cording as different accidents happen to ren- times happens even in Spain, it happens aller the efforts of human industry more or less most constantly in Chili, at Buenos Ayres, successful in augmenting the quantity, it may and in many other parts of Spanish America, happen sometimes even to fall, sometimes to where the horned cattle are almost constantly continue the same, in very different periods of killed merely for the sake of the hide and the improvement, and sometimes to rise more or tallow. This, too, used to happen almost conless in the same period. stantly in Hispaniola, while it was infested by There are some sorts of rude produce which the buccaneers, and before the settlement, imnature has rendered a kind of appendages to provement, and populousness of the French. other sorts; so that the quantity of the one plantations (which now extend round the coast which any country can afford, is necessarily of almost the whole western half of the island) limited by that of the other. The quantity had given some value to the cattle of the Spaof wool or of raw hides, for example, which niards, who still continue to possess, not only any country can afford, is necessarily limited the eastern part of the coast, but the whole by the number of great and small cattle that inland mountainous part of the country. are kept in it. The state of its improvement, and the nature of its agriculture, again necessarily determine this number.

Though, in the progress of improvement and population, the price of the whole beast necessarily rises, yet the price of the carcase The same causes which, in the progress of is likely to be much more affected by this rise improvement, gradually raise the price of than that of the wool and the hide. The marbutcher's meat, should have the same effect, ket for the carcase being in the rude state of It may be thought, upon the prices of wool society confined always to the country which and raw hides, and raise them, too, nearly in produces it, must necessarily be extended in the same proportion. It probably would be proportion to the improvement and populaso, if, in the rude beginnings of improvement, tion of that country. But the market for the the market for the latter commodities was wool and the hides, even of a barbarous counconfined within as narrow bounds as that for try, often extending to the whole commercial the former. But the extent of their respec- world, it can very seldom be enlarged in the tive markets is commonly extremely different. same proportion. The state of the whole comThe market for butcher's meat is almost mercial world can seldom be much affected everywhere confined to the country which by the improvement of any particular counproduces it. Ireland, and some part of Bri- try; and the market for such commodities tish America, indeed, carry on a considerable may remain the same, or very nearly the same, trade in salt provisions; but they are, I be- after such improvements, as before. It should, lieve, the only countries in the commercial however, in the natural course of things, raworld which do so, or which export to other ther, upon the whole, be somewhat extended countries any considerable part of their butch- in consequence of them. If the manufactures, especially, of which those commodities The market for wool and raw hides, on the are the materials, should ever come to flourish contrary, is, in the rude beginnings of im- in the country, the market, though it might provement, very seldom confined to the coun- not be much enlarged, would at least be try which produces them. They can easily brought much nearer to the place of growth be transported to distant countries; wool with- than before; and the price of those materials out any preparation, and raw hides with very might at least be increased by what had usuallittle; and as they are the materials of many ly been the expense of transporting them to manufactures, the industry of other countries distant countries. Though it might not rise, may occasion a demand for them, though that therefore, in the same proportion as that of of the country which produces them might butcher's meat, it ought naturally to rise some not occasion any. what, and it ought certainly not to fall.

er's meat.

In countries ill cultivated, and therefore In England, however, notwithstanding the but thinly inhabited, the price of the wool and flourishing state of its woollen manufacture, the hide bears always a much greater propor- the price of English wool has fallen very contion to that of the whole beast, than in coun- siderably since the time of Edward III. There tries where, improvement and population be-are many authentic records which demonstrate

that, during the reign of that prince (towards between the prior of Burcester Oxford and
the middle of the fourteenth century, or about one of his canons, gives us their price, at least
1359), what was reckoned the moderate and as it was stated upon that particular occasion,
reasonable price of the tod, or twenty-eight viz. five ox hides at twelve shillings; five cow
pounds of English wool, was not less than ten hides at seven shillings and threepence; thirty-
shillings of the money of those times, con- six sheep skins of two years old at nine shil-
taining, at the rate of twenty-pence the ounce, lings; sixteen calf skins at two shillings. In
six ounces of silver, Tower weight, equal to 1425, twelve shillings contained about the
about thirty shillings of our present money. same quantity of silver as four-and-twenty
In the present times, one-and-twenty shillings shillings of our present money. An ox hide,
the tod may be reckoned a good price for very therefore, was in this account valued at the
good English wool. The money price of wool, same quantity of silver as 4s. ths of our pre-
therefore, in the time of Edward III. was to sent money. Its nominal price was a good
its money price in the present times as ten to deal lower than at present. But at the rate
seven. The superiority of its real price was of six shillings and eightpence the quarter,
still greater. At the rate of six shillings and twelve shillings would in those times have
eightpence the quarter, ten shillings was in purchased fourteen bushels and four-fifths of
those ancient times the price of twelve bushels a bushel of wheat, which, at three and six-
of wheat. At the rate of twenty-eight shil- pence the bushel, would in the present times
lings the quarter, one-and-twenty shillings is cost 51s. 4d. An ox hide, therefore, would
in the present times the price of six bushels in those times have purchased as much corn
only. The proportion between the real price as ten shillings and threepence would pur-
of ancient and modern times, therefore, is as chase at present. Its real value was equal to
twelve to six, or as two to one. In those an- ten shillings and threepence of our present
cient times, a tod of wool would have pur-money. In those ancient times, when the
chased twice the quantity of subsistence which cattle were half starved during the greater
it will purchase at present, and consequently part of the winter, we cannot suppose that
twice the quantity of labour, if the real re- they were of a very large size.
compence of labour had been the same in both which weighs four stone of sixteen pounds of
periods.
avoirdupois, is not in the present times reck-
This degradation, both in the real and no-oned a bad one; and in those ancient times
minal value of wool, could never have hap- would probably have been reckoned a very
pened in consequence of the natural course of good one. But at half-a-crown the stone,
things. It has accordingly been the effect of which at this moment (February 1773) I un-
violence and artifice. First, of the absolute derstand to be the common price, such a hide
prohibition of exporting wool from England: would at present cost only ten shillings.-
secondly, of the permission of importing it Though its nominal price, therefore, is higher
from Spain, duty free: thirdly, of the prohi- in the present than it was in those ancient
bition of exporting it from Ireland to any times, its real price, the real quantity of sub-
other country but England. In consequence sistence which it will purchase or command, is
of these regulations, the market for English rather somewhat lower. The price of cow
wool, instead of being somewhat extended, in hides, as stated in the above account, is nearly
consequence of the improvement of England, in the common proportion to that of ox hides.
has been confined to the home market, where That of sheep skins is a good deal above it.
the wool of several other countries is allowed They had probably been sold with the wool.
to come into competition with it, and where That of calves skins, on the contrary, is great.
that of Ireland is forced into competition with ly below it. In countries where the price of
it. As the woollen manufactures, too, of cattle is very low, the calves, which are not
Ireland, are fully as much discouraged as is intended to be reared in order to keep up the
consistent with justice and fair dealing, the stock, are generally killed very young, as was
Irish can work up but a smaller part of their the case in Scotland twenty or thirty years
own wool at home, and are therefore obliged ago. It saves the milk, which their price
to send a greater proportion of it to Great would not pay for. Their skins, therefore,
Britain, the only market they are allowed. are commonly good for little.

An ox hide

I have not been able to find any such au- The price of raw hides is a good deal low thentic records concerning the price of raw er at present than it was a few years ago; hides in ancient times. Wool was commonly paid as a subsidy to the king, and its valua. tion in that subsidy ascertains, at least in some degree, what was its ordinary price. But this seems not to have been the case with raw hides. Fleetwood, however, from an account in 1425,

* See Smith's Memoirs of Wool, vol. i. c. 5, 6, 7. also

vol. ii.

owing probably to the taking off the duty up-
on seal skins, and to the allowing, for a limit-
ed time, the importation of raw hides from
Ireland, and from the plantations, duty free,
which was done in 1769.
Take the whole of
the present century at an average, their real
price has probably been somewhat higher than
it was in those ancient times. The nature of
the commodity renders it not quite so piepen

for being transported to distant markets as hide made the principal part of the value of wool. It suffers more by keeping. A salted those cattle. Their interest as landlords and hide is reckoned inferior to a fresh one, and farmers would in this case be very deeply af sells for a lower price. This circumstance fected by such regulations, and their interest must necessarily have some tendency to sink as consumers very little. The fall in the price the price of raw hides produced in a country of the wool and the hide would not in this which does not manufacture them, but is ob- case raise the price of the carcase; because liged to export them, and comparatively to the greater part of the lands of the country raise that of those produced in a country which being applicable to no other purpose but the does manufacture them. It must have some feeding of cattle, the same number would still tendency to sink their price in a barbarous, continue to be fed. The same quantity of and to raise it in an improved and manufac- butcher's meat would still come to market. turing country. It must have had some ten- The demand for it would be no greater than dency, therefore, to sink it in ancient, and to before. Its price, therefore, would be the same raise it in modern times. Our tanners, besides, as before. The whole price of cattle would have not been quite so successful as our cloth-fall, and along with it both the rent and the iers, in convincing the wisdom of the nation, profit of all those lands of which cattle was that the safety of the commonwealth depends the principal produce, that is, of the greater upon the prosperity of their particular manu- part of the lands of the country. The perfacture. They have accordingly been much petual prohibition of the exportation of wool, less favoured. The exportation of raw hides which is commonly, but very falsely, ascribed has, indeed, been prohibited, and declared a to Edward III., would, in the then circumnuisance; but their importation from foreign stances of the country, have been the most countries has been subjected to a duty; and destructive regulation which could well have though this duty has been taken off from those been thought of. It would not only have re. of Ireland and the plantations (for the limit-duced the actual value of the greater part of ed time of five years only), yet Ireland has the lands in the kingdom, but by reducing not been confined to the market of Great Bri- the price of the most important species of tain for the sale of its surplus hides, or of small cattle, it would have retarded very much those which are not manufactured at home. its subsequent improvement. The hides of common cattle have, but within The wool of Scotland fell very considerthese few years, been put among the enume-ably in its price in consequence of the union Iated commodities which the plantations can with England, by which it was excluded from send nowhere but to the mother country; neither has the commerce of Ireland been in this case oppressed hitherto, in order to support the manufactures of Great Britain.

the great market of Europe, and confined to the narrow one of Great Britain. The value of the greater part of the lands in the southern counties of Scotland, which are chiefly a sheep country, would have been very deeply affect ed by this event, had not the rise in the price of butcher's meat fully compensated the fall in the price of wool.

Whatever regulations tend to sink the price, either of wool or of raw hides, below what it naturally would be, must, in an improved and cultivated country, have some tendency to raise the price of butcher's meat. The price both As the efficacy of human industry, in in. of the great and small cattle, which are fed creasing the quantity either of wool or of raw on improved and cultivated land, must be suf- hides, is limited, so far as it depends upon ficient to pay the rent which the landlord, and the produce of the country where it is exert the profit which the farmer, has reason to ex-ed; so it is uncertain so far as it depends uppect from improved and cultivated land. If on the produce of other countries. It so far it is not, they will soon cease to feed them. depends not so much upon the quantity which Whatever part of this price, therefore, is not they produce, as upon that which they do not paid by the wool and the hide, must be paid manufacture; and upon the restraints which by the carcase. The less there is paid for they may or may not think proper to impose the one, the more must be paid for the other. upon the exportation of this sort of rude pro In what manner this price is to be divided duce. These circumstances, as they are altoupon the different parts of the beast, is indif-gether independent of domestic industry, so ferent to the landlords and farmers, provided they necessarily render the efficacy of its efforts it is all paid to them. In an improved and more or less uncertain. In multiplying this cultivated country, therefore, their interest as sort of rude produce, therefore, the efficacy landlords and farmers cannot be much affect-of human industry is not only limited, but ed by such regulations, though their interest uncertain.

as consumers may, by the rise in the price of In multiplying another very important sort provisions. It would be quite otherwise, how-of rude produce, the quantity of fish that is ever, in an unimproved and uncultivated country, where the greater part of the lands could be applied to no other purpose but the feeding of cattle, and where the wool and the

brought to market, it is likewise both limited and uncertain. It is limited by the local situation of the country, by the proximity or distance of its different provinces from the