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some of their courts were so very numerous), |ers is more or less corrupted by the circum could not fall very heavy upon any indivi- stances which render them more or less inde. dual. At Rome, on the contrary, the prin- pendent of their success and reputation in cipal courts of justice consisted either of a their particular professions. Their salaries, single judge, or of a small number of judges, too, put the private teacher, who would pre whose characters, especially as they delibe- tend to come into competition with them, in rated always in public, could not fail to be the same state with a merchant who attempts very much affected by any rash or unjust de- to trade without a bounty, in competition cision. In doubtful cases such courts, from with those who trade with a considerable one. their anxiety to avoid blame, would naturally If he sells his goods at nearly the same price, endeavour to shelter themselves under the ex- he cannot have the same profit; and poverty ample or precedent of the judges who had sat and beggary at least, if not bankruptcy and before them, either in the same or in some ruin, will infallibly be his lot. If he at ǝther court. This attention to practice and tempts to sell them much dearer, he is likely precedent, necessarily formed the Roman to have so few customers, that his circumlaw into that regular and orderly system in stances will not be much mended. The pri which it has been delivered down to us; and vileges of graduation, besides, are in many the like attention has had the like effects up-countries necessary, or at least extremely conon the laws of every other country where venient, to most men of learned professions. such attention has taken place. The supe- that is, to the far greater part of those who riority of character in the Romans over that have occasion for a learned education. But of the Greeks, so much remarked by Poly- those privileges can be obtained only by atbius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, was tending the lectures of the public teachers. probably more owing to the better constitu- The most careful attendance upon the ablest tion of their courts of justice, than to any of instructions of any private teacher cannot althe circumstances to which those authors ways give any title to demand them. It is ascribe it. The Romans are said to have from these different causes that the private been particularly distinguished for their su- teacher of any of the sciences, which are perior respect to an oath. But the people commonly taught in universities, is, in mowho were accustomed to make oath only before some diligent and well informed court of justice, would naturally be much more attentive to what they swore, than they who were accustomed to do the same thing before mobbish and disorderly assemblies.

dern times, generally considered as in the very lowest order of men of letters. A man of real abilities can scarce find out a more humiliating or a more unprofitable employ. ment to turn them to. The endowments of schools and colleges have in this manner not The abilities, both civil and military, of only corrupted the diligence of public teachthe Greeks and Romans, will readily be al-ers, but have rendered it almost impossible lowed to have been at least equal to those of to have any good private ones. any modern nation. Our prejudice is per- Were there no public institutions for edu haps rather to overrate them. But except in cation, no system, no science, would be what related to military exercises, the state taught, for which there was not some deseems to have been at no pains to form those mand, or which the circumstances of the great abilities; for I cannot be induced to times did not render it either necessary or believe that the musical education of the convenient, or at least fashionable to learn. Greeks could be of much consequence in A private teacher could never find his account forming them. Masters, however, had been in teaching either an exploded and antiquated found, it seems, for instructing the better system of a science acknowledged to be use sort of people among those nations, in every ful, or a science universally believed to be a art and science in which the circumstances of mere useless and pedantic heap of sophistry their society rendered it necessary or conve- and nonsense. Such systems, such sciences, nient for them to be instructed. The de- can subsist nowhere but in those incorporated mand for such instruction produced, what it societies for education, whose prosperity and always produces, the talent for giving it; and revenue are in a great measure independent the emulation which an unrestrained compe- of their industry. Were there no public intition never fails to excite, appears to have stitutions for education, a gentleman, after brought that talent to a very high degree of going through, with application and abilities, perfection. In the attention which the an- the most complete course of education which cient philosophers excited, in the empire the circumstances of the times were supposed which they acquired over the opinions and to afford, could not come into the world com. principles of their auditors, in the faculty pletely ignorant of every thing which is the which they possessed of giving a certain tone common subject of conversation among genand character to the conduct and conversation tlemen and men of the world. of those auditors, they appear to have been There are no public institutions for the much superior to any modern teachers. In education of women, and there is accordingly modern times, the diligence of public teach-nothing useless, absurd, or fantastical, in the

common course of their eaucation. They are him otherwise, he is equally incapable of de. taught what their parents or guardians judge fending his country in war. The uniformity it necessary or useful for them to learn, and of his stationary life naturally corrupts the they are taught nothing else. Every part of courage of his mind, and makes him regard, their education tends evidently to some useful with abhorrence, the irregular, uncertain, and purpose; either to improve the natural attrac-adventurous life of a soldier. It corrupts tions of their person, or to form their mind even the activity of his body, and renders to reserve, to modesty, to chastity, and to him incapable of exerting his strength with economy; to render them both likely to be- vigour and perseverance in any other employcome the mistresses of a family, and to be- ment, than that to which he has been bred. have properly when they have become such. His dexterity at his own particular trade In every part of her life, a woman feels some seems, in this manner, to be acquired at the conveniency or advantage from every part of expense of his intellectual, social, and martial her education. It seldom happens that a virtues. But in every improved and civilized man, in any part of his life, derives any con- society, this is the state into which the laveniency or advantage from some of the most laborious and troublesome parts of his education.

bouring poor, that is, the great body of the people, must necessarily fall, unless government takes some pains to prevent it.

Ought the public, therefore, to give no It is otherwise in the barbarous societies, as attention, it may be asked, to the education they are commonly called, of hunters, of shepof the people? Or, if it ought to give any, herds, and even of husbandmen in that rude what are the different parts of education state of husbandry which precedes the imwhich it ought to attend to in the different provement of manufactures, and the extension orders of the people? and in what manner ought it to attend to them?

of foreign commerce. In such societies, the varied occupations of every man oblige every In some cases, the state of society neces- man to exert his capacity, and to invent exsarily places the greater part of individuals in pedients for removing difficulties which are such situations as naturally form in them, continually occurring. Invention is kept without any attention of government, almost alive, and the mind is not suffered to fall inall the abilities and virtues which that state to that drowsy stupidity, which, in a civilized requires, or perhaps can admit of. In other society, seems to benumb the understanding cases, the state of the society does not place of almost all the inferior ranks of people. the greater part of individuals in such situa- In those barbarous societies, as they are caltions; and some attention of government is necessary, in order to prevent the almost entire corruption and degeneracy of the great body of the people.

led, every man, it has already been observed, is a warrior. Every man, too, is in some measure a statesman, and can form a tolerable judgment concerning the interest of the In the progress of the division of labour, society, and the conduct of those who govern the employment of the far greater part of it. How far their chiefs are good judges in those who live by labour, that is, of the great peace, or good leaders in war, is obvious to body of the people, comes to be confined to the observation of almost every single man a few very simple operations; frequently to among them. In such a society, indeed, no one or two. But the understandings of the man can well acquire that improved and regreater part of men are necessarily formed fined understanding which a few men someby their ordinary employments. The man times possess in a more civilized state. whose whole life is spent in performing a few Though in a rude society there is a good simple operations, of which the effects, too, deal of variety in the occupations of every are perhaps always the same, or very nearly individual, there is not a great deal in those the same, has no occasion to exert his under- of the whole society. Every man does, or is standing, or to exercise his invention, in finding out expedients for removing difficulties which never occur. He naturally loses, therefore, the habit of such exertion, and generally becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become. gree, however, which is commonly possessed, The torpor of his mind renders him not only is generally sufficient for conducting the incapable of relishing or bearing a part in whole simple business of the society. In a any rational conversation, but of conceiving civilized state, on the contrary, though there any generous, noble, or tender sentiment, is little variety in the occupations of the and consequently of forming any just judg- greater part of individuals, there is an almost ment concerning many even of the ordinary infinite variety in those of the whole society. duties of private life. Of the great and ex- These.varied occupations present an almost tensive interests of his country he is altoge-infinite variety of objects to the contempla. ther incapable of judging; and unless very tion of those few, who, being attached to no particular pains have been taken to render particular occupation themselves, have leisure

capable of doing, almost every thing which any other man does, or is capable of doing. Every man has a considerable degree of knowledge, ingenuity, and invention but scarce any man has a great degree. The de

uniform, as to give little exercise to the understanding; while, at the same time, their labour is both so constant and so severe, that it leaves them little leisure and less inclination to apply to, or even to think of any thing else.

and inclination to examine the occupations | able to work, they must apply to some trade, of other people. The contemplation of so by which they can earn their subsistence. great a variety of objects necessarily exercises That trade, too, is generally so simple and their minds in endless comparisons and combinations, and renders their understandings, in an extraordinary degree, both acute and comprehensive. Unless those few, however, nappen to be placed in some very particular situations, their great abilities, though honourable to themselves, may contribute very little to the good government or happiness of their society. Notwithstanding the great abilities of those few, all the nobler parts of the human character may be, in a great measure, obliterated and extinguished in the great body of the people.

But though the common people cannot, in any civilized society, be so well instructed as people of some rank and fortune; the most essential parts of education, however, to read, write, and account, can be acquired at so early a period of life, that the greater part, even of those who are to be bred to the lowest

they can be employed in those occupations. For a very small expense, the public can facilitate, can encourage, and can even impose upon almost the whole body of the people, the necessity of acquiring those most essential parts of education.

The education of the common people re-occupations, have time to acquire them before quires, perhaps, in a civilized and commercial society, the attention of the public, more than that of people of some rank and fortune. People of some rank and fortune are generally eighteen or nineteen years of age, before they enter upon that particular business, profession, or trade, by which they propose to The public can facilitate this acquisition, distinguish themselves in the world. They by establishing in every parish or district a have, before that, full time to acquire, or at little school, where children may be taught least to fit themselves for afterwards acquir- for a reward so moderate, that even a common ing, every accomplishment which can recom- labourer may afford it; the master being partly, mend them to the public esteem, or render but not wholly, paid by the public; because, if them worthy of it. Their parents or guar- he was wholly, or even principally, paid by it, dians are generally sufficiently anxious that he would soon learn to neglect his business. they should be so accomplished, and are, in In Scotland, the establishment of such parish most cases, willing enough to lay out the ex- schools has taught almost the whole common pense which is necessary for that purpose. If people to read, and a very great proportion of they are not always properly educated, it is them to write and account. In England, the seldom from the want of expense laid out up-establishment of charity schools has had an on their education, but from the improper application of that expense. It is seldom from the want of masters, but from the negligence and incapacity of the masters who are to be had, and from the difficulty, or rather from the impossibility, which there is, in the present state of things, of finding any better. The employments, too, in which people of some rank or fortune spend the greater part of their lives, are not, like those of the common people, simple and uniform. They are almost all of them extremely complicated, and such as exercise the head more than the hands. The understandings of those who are engaged in such employments, can seldom grow torpid for want of exercise. The employments of people of some rank and fortune, besides, are seldom such as harass them from morning to night. They generally have a good deal of leisure, during which they may perfect themselves in every branch, either of useful or ornamental knowledge, of which they may have laid the foundation, or for which they may have acquired some taste in the earlier part of life.

It is otherwise with the common people. They have little time to spare for education. Their parents can scarce afford to maintain them, even in infancy. As soon as they are

effect of the same kind, though not so universally, because the establishment is not so universal. If, in those little schools, the books by which the children are taught to read, were a little more instructive than they commonly are; and if, instead of a little smattering in Latin, which the children of the common people are sometimes taught there, and which can scarce ever be of any use to them, they were instructed in the elementary parts of geometry and mechanics; the literary education of this rank of people would, perhaps, be as complete as can be. There is scarce a common trade, which does not afford some opportunities of applying to it the principles of geometry and mechanics, and which would not, therefore, gradually exercise and improve the common people in those principles, the necessary introduction to the most sublime, as well as to the most useful sciences.

The public can encourage the acquisition of those most essential parts of education, by giving small premiums, and little badges of distinction, to the children of the common people who excel in them.

The public can impose upon almost the whole body of the people the necessity of acquiring the most essential parts of education, by obliging every man to undergo an exani

nation or probation in them, before he can | They were much more simple. When they obtain the freedom in any corporation, or be allowed to set up any trade, either in a village or town corporate.

It was in this manner, by facilitating the acquisition of their military and gymnastic exercises, by encouraging it, and even by imposing upon the whole body of the people the necessity of learning those exercises, that the Greek and Roman republics maintained the martial spirit of their respective citizens. They facilitated the acquisition of those exercises, by appointing a certain place for learning and practising them, and by granting to certain masters the privilege of teaching in that place. Those masters do not appear to have had either salaries or exclusive privileges of any kind. Their reward consisted altogether in what they got from their scholars; and a citizen, who had learnt his exercises in the public gymnasia, had no sort of legal advantage over one who had learnt them privately, provided the latter had learned them equally well. Those republics encouraged the acquisition of those exercises, by bestowing little premiums and badges of distinction upon those who excelled in them. To have gained a prize in the Olympic, Isthmian, or Nemæan games, gave illustration, not only to the person who gained it, but to his whole family and kindred. The obligation which every citizen was under, to serve a certain number of years, if called upon, in the armies of the republic, sufficiently imposed the necessity of learning those exercises, without which he could not be fit for that service.

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were once established, they executed themselves, and it required little or no attention from government to maintain them in the most perfect vigour. Whereas to maintain, even in tolerable execution, the complex regulations of any modern militia, requires the continual and painful attention of government, without which they are constantly falling into total neglect and disuse. The influ ence, besides, of the ancient institutions, was much more universal. By means of them, the whole body of the people was completely instructed in the use of arms; whereas it is but a very small part of them who can ever be so instructed by the regulations of any modern militia, except, perhaps, that of Switzerland. But a coward, a man incapable either of defending or of revenging himself, evidently wants one of the most essential parts of the character of a man. He is as much mutilated and deformed in his mind as another is in his body, who is either deprived of some of its most essential members, or has lost the use of them. He is evidently the more wretched and miserable of the two; because happiness and misery, which reside altogether in the mind, must necessarily depend more upon the healthful or unhealthful, the mutilated or entire state of the mind, than upon that of the body. Even though the mar tial spirit of the people were of no use towards the defence of the society, yet, to prevent that sort of mental mutilation, deformity, and wretchedness, which cowardice necessarily involves in it, from spreading themselves through the great body of the people, would still deserve the most serious attention of government; in the same mammer as it would deserve its most serious attention to prevent a leprosy, or any other loathsome and offensive disease, though neither mortal nor dangerous, from spreading itself among them; though, perhaps, no other public good might result from such attention, besides the prevention of so great a public evil.

That in the progress of improvement, the practice of military exercises, unless government takes proper pains to support it, goes gradually to decay, and, together with it, the martial spirit of the great body of the people, the example of modern Europe sufficiently demonstrates. But the security of every society must always depend, more or less, upon the martial spirit of the great body of the people. In the present times, indeed, that martial spirit alone, and unsupported by a well-disciplined The same thing may be said of the gross standing army, would not, perhaps, be suffi- ignorance and stupidity which, in a civilized cient for the defence and security of any so-society, seem so frequently to benumb the ciety. But where every citizen had the spirit of a soldier, a smaller standing army would surely be requisite. That spirit, besides, would necessarily diminish very much the dangers to liberty, whether real or imaginary, which are commonly apprehended from a standing army. As it would very much facilitate the operations of that army against a foreign in vader; so it would obstruct them as much, if unfortunately they should ever be directed against the constitution of the state.

The ancient institutions of Greece and Rome seem to have been much more effectual for maintaining the martial spirit of the great body of the people, than the establishment of what are called the militias of modern times.

understandings of all the inferior ranks of people. A man without the proper use of the intellectual faculties of a man, is, if possible, more contemptible than even a coward, and seems to be mutilated and deformed in a still more essential part of the character of human nature. Though the state was to derive no advantage from the instruction of the inferior ranks of people, it would still deserve its at tention that they should not be altogether uninstructed. The state, however, derives no inconsiderable advantage from their instruction. The more they are instructed, the less liable they are to the delusions of enthusiasm and superstition, which, among ignorant na tions frequently occasion the most dreadful

disorders. An instructed and intelligent peo- | ignorant enthusiasts, feel themselves as perfect ple, besides, are always more decent and or-ly defenceless as the indolent, effeminate, and derly than an ignorant and stupid one. They full fed nations of the southern parts of Asia, feel themselves, each individually, more re- when they were invaded by the active, hardy, spectable, and more likely to obtain the re- and hungry Tartars of the north. Such a spect of their lawful superiors, and they are, clergy, upon such an emergency, have comtherefore, more disposed to respect those su-monly no other resource than to call upon the periors. They are more disposed to examine, civil magistrate to persecute, destroy, or and more capable of seeing through, the in- drive out their adversaries, as disturbers of terested complaints of faction and sedition; the public peace. It was thus that the Roand they are, upon that account, less apt to man catholic clergy called upon the civil be misled into any wanton or unnecessary op- magistrate to persecute the protestants, and position to the measures of government. In the church of England to persecute the dis free countries, where the safety of govern- senters; and that in general every religious ment depends very much upon the favour-sect, when it has once enjoyed, for a century able judgment which the people may form or two, the security of a legal establishment, of its conduct, it must surely be of the high- has found itself incapable of making any est importance, that they should not be dis- vigorous defence against any new sect which posed to judge rashly or capriciously concerning it.

chose to attack its doctrine or discipline. Upon such occasions, the advantage, in point of learning and good writing, may sometimes be on the side of the established church. But the arts of popularity, all the arts of gaining proselytes, are constantly on the side of its adversaries. In England, those arts THE institutions for the instruction of peo- have been long neglected by the well endow pie of all ages, are chiefly those for religious ed clergy of the established church, and are instruction. This is a species of instruction, at present chiefly cultivated by the dissenters of which the object is not so much to render and by the methodists. The independent the people good citizens in this world, as to provisions, however, which in many places prepare them for another and a better world have been made for dissenting teachers, by in the life to come. The teachers of the means of voluntary subscriptions, of trust doctrine which contains this instruction, in rights, and other evasions of the law, seem the same manner as other teachers, may either very much to have abated the zeal and actidepend altogether for their subsistence upon vity of those teachers. They have many of the voluntary contributions of their hearers; them become very learned, ingenious, and or they may derive it from some other fund, respectable men; but they have in genera. to which the law of their country may entitle ceased to be very popular preachers. The them; such as a landed estate, a tythe or methodists, without half the learning of the land tax, an established salary or stipend. dissenters, are much more in vogue. Their exertion, their zeal and industry, are In the church of Rome the industry and likely to be much greater in the former situa-zeal of the inferior clergy are kept more alive tion than in the latter. In this respect, the by the powerful motive of self-interest, than teachers of a new religion have always had a perhaps in any established protestant church. considerable advantage in attacking those an- The parochial clergy derive many of them, a cient and established systems, of which the very considerable part of their subsistence clergy, reposing themselves upon their bene- from the voluntary oblations of the people; fices, had neglected to keep up the fervour of a source of revenue, which confession gives faith and devotion in the great body of the them many opportunities of improving. The people; and having given themselves up to mendicant orders derive their whole subsisindolence, were become altogether incapable tence from such oblations. It is with them of making any vigorous exertion in defence as with the hussars and light infantry of some even of their own establishment. The clergy armies; no plunder, no pay. The parochial of an established and well endowed religion clergy are like those teachers whose reward frequently become men of learning and ele- depends partly upon their salary, and partly gance, who possess all the virtues of gentle- upon the fees or honoraries which they get men, or which can recommend them to the from their pupils; and these must always de esteem of gentlemen; but they are apt gra- pend, more or less, upon their industry and dually to lose the qualities, both good and reputation. The mendicant orders are like bad, which gave them authority and influence those teachers whose subsistence depends with the inferior ranks of people, and which altogether upon their industry. They are had perhaps been the original causes of the obliged, therefore, to use every art which can success and establishment of their religion. animate the devotion of the common people. Such a clergy, when attacked by a set of po-The establishment of the two great mendicant pular and bold, though perhaps stupid and orders of St Dominic and St. Francis, it is

ART. III. Of the Expense of the Institutions for the Instruction of People of all Ages.

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