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or, by extraordinary restraints, to force from the duty of establishing an exact administra a particular species of industry some share of tion of justice; and, thirdly, the duty of erect the capital which would otherwise be employ-ing and maintaining certain public works, ed in it, is, in reality, subversive of the great purpose which it means to promote. It reards, instead of accelerating the progress of the society towards real wealth and greatness; and diminishes, instead of increasing, the real value of the annual produce of its land and labour.

and certain public institutions, which it can never be for the interest of any individual, or small number of individuals to erect and maintain; because the profit could never repay the expense to any individual, or small number of individuals, though it may frequently do much more than repay it to ? great society.

All systems, either of preference or of restraint, therefore, being thus completely taken The proper performance of those severa away, the obvious and simple system of na- duties of the sovereign necessarily supposes a tural liberty establishes itself of its own ac- certain expense; and this expense again necord. Every man, as long as he does not cessarily requires a certain revenue to support violate the laws of justice, is left perfectly it. In the following book, therefore, I shall free to pursue his own interest his own way, endeavour to explain, first, what are the neand to bring both his industry and capital in-cessary expenses of the sovereign or commonto competition with those of any other man, wealth; and which of those expenses ought or order of men. The sovereign is complete- to be defrayed by the general contribution of ly discharged from a duty, in the attempting the whole society; and which of them, by that to perform which he must always be exposed to innumerable delusions, and for the proper performance of which, no human wisdom or knowledge could ever be sufficient; the duty of superintending the industry of private people, and of directing it towards the employments most suitable to the interests of the society. According to the system of natural liberty, the sovereign has only three duties to attend to; three duties of great importance, indeed, but plain and intelligible to common understandings: first, the duty of protecting the society from the violence and invasion of other independent societies; secondly, the duty of protecting, as far as possible, every member of the society from the injustice or oppression of every other member of it, or

of some particular part only, or of some particular members of the society: secondly, what are the different methods in which the whole society may be made to contribute towards defraying the expenses incumbent on the whole society; and what are the principal advantages and inconveniencies of each of those methods: and thirdly, what are the reasons and causes which have induced almost all modern governments to mortgage some part of this revenue, or to contract debts; and what have been the effects of those debts upon the real wealth, the annual produce of the land and labour of the society. The follow ing book, therefore, will naturally be divided into three chapters. Notes 36, 37,

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THE two following accounts are subjoined, in order to illustrate and confirm what is said ın the fifth chapter of the fourth book, concerning the Tonnage Bounty to the White-herring Fishery. The reader, I believe, may depend upon the accuracy of both accounts.

An Account of Busses fitted out in Scotland for deven Years, with the Number of empty Bur rels carried out, and the Number of Barrels of Herrings caught; also the Bounty, at a Medium, on each Barrel of Sea-sticks, and on each Barrel when fully packed.

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Sea-sticks,

378,347

Bounty, at a medium, for each barrel of sea-sticks, Lo 8 24 But a barrel of sea-sticks being only reckoned two thirds of a barrel fully packed, one third is to be deducted, which brings 1-3d deducted, 126,115 the bounty to L.0 12 3

packed,

Barrels fully

252,2314

And if the herrings are exported, there is besides, a premium of.................. L.0 2 8

So that the bounty paid by government in money, for each barrel, is....................... But if to this, the duty of the salt usually taken credit for as expended in curing each barrel, which, at a medium, is, of foreign, one bushel and one-fourth of a bushel, at 10s. a-bushel, be added, viz....

the bounty on each barrel would amount to

L.0 14 112

0 12 6

L.1 7 52

ff the herrings are cured with British salt, it will stand thus, viz. Bounty, as before,.....

..L.0 14 11

But if to this bounty, the duty on two bushels of Scotch salt, at 1s. 6d. per bushel, supposed to be the quantity, at a medium, used in curing each barrel, is added, viz.........

0 30

LO 17 11

the bounty on each barrel will amount to........

And when buss herrings are entered for home consumption in Scotland, and pay the shilling a-barrel of duty, the bounty stands thus, to wit, as before........

From which the 1s. a-barrel is to be deducted.....

0 10

L.0 11 S

But to that there is to be added again, the duty of the foreign salt used in curing a barrel of herrings, viz....

So that the premium allowed for each barrel of herrings entered for home consumption is.....

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If the herrings are cured with British salt, it will stand as follows, viz.
Bounty on each barrel brought in by the busses, as above...................
From which deduct the Is. a-barrel, paid at the time they are entered for home
consumption.........

But if to the bounty, the duty on two bushels of Scotch salt, at Is. 6d. per bushel, supposed to be the quantity, at a medium, used in curing each barrel, is added, viz.

0 12 6

L. 9 9

L.0 12 31

010

L.0 11 3

030

LO 14 33

the premium for each barrel entered for home consumption will be................ Though the loss of duties upon herrings exported cannot, perhaps, properly be considered as bounty, that upon herrings entered for home consumption certainly may.

An Account of the Quantity of Foreign Salt imported into Scotland, and of Scotch Salt delivered Duty-free from the Works there, for the Fishery, from the 5th of April 1771 to the 5th of April 1782, with the Medium of both for one Year.

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It is to be observel, that the bushel of foreign salt weighs 48lb, that of British salt, 56lb.

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BOOK V.

OF THE REVENUE OF THE SOVEREIGN OR COMMONWEALTH

CHAP. I.

accidents. When its herds and flocks have consumed the forage of one part of the

OF THE EXPENSES OF THE SOVEREIGN OR COM-country, it removes to another, and from

MONWEALTH.

PART I.

Of the Expense of Defence.

that to a third. In the dry season, it comes down to the banks of the rivers; in the wet season, it retires to the upper country. When such a nation goes to war, the war riors will not trust their herds and flocks to the feeble defence of their old men, their women and children; and their old men, THE first duty of the sovereign, that of pro- their women and children, will not be left tecting the society from the violence and behind without defence, and without subsisinvasion of other independent societies, can tence. The whole nation, besides, being acbe performed only by means of a military customed to a wandering life, even in time force. But the expense both of preparing of peace, easily takes the field in time of war. this military force in time of peace, and of Whether it marches as an army, or moves employing it in time of war, is very different | about as a company of herdsmen, the way of in the different states of society, in the dif-life is nearly the same, though the object ferent periods of improvement.

Among nations of hunters, the lowest and rudest state of society, such as we find it among the native tribes of North America, every man is a warrior, as well as a hunter. When he goes to war, either to defend his society, or to revenge the injuries which have been done to it by other societies, he maintains himself by his own labour, in the same manner as when he lives at home. His society (for in this state of things there is properly neither sovereign nor commonwealth) is at no sort of expense, either to prepare him for the field, or to maintain him while he is in it.

Among nations of shepherds, a more advanced state of society, such as we find it among the Tartars and Arabs, every man is, in the same manner, a warrior. Such nations have commonly no fixed habitation, but live either in tents, or in a sort of covered waggons, which are easily transported from place to place. The whole tribe, or nation, changes its situation according to the different seasons of the year, as well as according to other

proposed by it be very different. They all go to war together, therefore, and every one does as well as he can. Among the Tartars, even the women have been frequently known to engage in battle. If they conquer, whatever belongs to the hostile tribe is the recompence of the victory; but if they are vanquished, all is lost; and not only their herds and flocks, but their women and children.. become the booty of the conqueror. Even the greater part of those who survive the action are obliged to submit to him for the sake of immediate subsistence. The rest are com monly dissipated and dispersed in the desert.

The ordinary life, the ordinary exercise of a Tartar or Arab, prepare him sufficiently for war. Running, wrestling, cudgel-playing, throwing the javelin, drawing the bow, &c. are the common pastimes of those who live in the open air, and are all of them the images of war. When a Tartar or Arab actually goes to war, he is maintained by his own herds and flocks, which he carries with him, in the same manner as in peace. His chief or sovereign (for those nations have all

chiefs or sovereigns) is at no sort of expense quite so much masters of their exercise. Such in preparing him for the field; and when he as they are, however, it seldom costs the sove is in it, the chance of plunder is the only pay reign or commonwealth any expense to prewhich he either expects or requires. pare them for the field.

An army of hunters can seldom exceed two Agriculture, even in its rudest and lowest or three hundred men. The precarious sub-state, supposes a settlement, some sort of fix. sistence which the chace affords, could seldom ed habitation, which cannot be abandoned allow a greater number to keep together for without great loss. When a nation of mere any considerable time. An army of shep-husbandmen, therefore, goes to war, the whole herds, on the contrary, may sometimes amount people cannot take the field together. The to two or three hundred thousand. As long old men, the women and children, at least, as nothing stops their progress, as long as they must remain at home, to take care of the ha can go on from one district, of which they bitation. All the men of the military age, have consumed the forage, to another, which however, may take the field, and in small nais yet entire; there seems to be scarce any tions of this kind, have frequently done so. limit to the number who can march on toge- In every nation, the men of the military age her. A nation of hunters can never be are supposed to amount to about a fourth o formidable to the civilized nations in their a fifth part of the whole body of the people. neighbourhood; a nation of shepherds may. If the campaign, too, should begin after seedNothing can be more contemptible than an time, and end before harvest, both the husIndian war in North America; nothing, on bandman and his principal labourers can be the contrary, can be more dreadful than a spared from the farm without much loss. He Tartar invasion has frequently been in Asia. trusts that the work which must be done in The judgment of Thucydides, that both Eu- the mean time, can be well enough executed rope and Asia could not resist the Scythians by the old men, the women, and the children. united, has been verified by the experience of He is not unwilling, therefore, to serve withall ages. The inhabitants of the extensive, out pay during a short campaign; and it frebut defenceles plains of Scythia or Tartary, quently costs the sovereign or commonwealth have been frequently united under the do- as little to maintain him in the field as to preminion of the chief of some conquering horde pare him for it. The citizens of all the difor clan; and the havock and devastation of ferent states of ancient Greece seem to have Asia have always signalized their union. The served in this manner till after the second inhabitants of the inhospitable deserts of Persian war; and the people of Peloponne Arabia, the other great nation of shepherds, sus till after the Peloponnesian war. The have never been united but once, under Ma- Peloponnesians, Thucydides observes, gene homet and his immediate successors. Their rally left the field in the summer, and return union, which was more the effect of religious ed home to reap the harvest. The Romar enthusiasm than of conquest, was signalized people, under their kings, and during the first in the same manner. If the hunting nations ages of the republic, served in the same manof America should ever become shepherds, their neighbourhood would be much more dangerous to the European colonies than it is at present.

ner. It was not till the seige of Veii, that they who staid at home began to contribute something towards maintaining those who went to war. In the European monarchies, In a yet more advanced state of society, which were founded upon the ruins of the among those nations of husbandmen who have Roman empire, both before, and for some little foreign commerce, and no other manu- time after, the establishment of what is profactures but those coarse and household ones, perly called the feudal law, the great lords, which almost every private family prepares with all their immediate dependents, used to for its own use, every man, in the same serve the crown at their own expense. In manner, either is a warrior, or easily becomes the field, in the same manner as at home, such. Those who live by agricuiture gene- they maintained themselves by their own rerally pass the whole day in the open air, ex-venue, and not by any stipend or pay which posed to all the inclemencies of the seasons. they received from the king upon that partiThe hardiness of their ordinary life prepares cular occasion.

them for the fatigues of war, to some of which In a more advanced state of society, two their necessary occupations bear a great ana-different causes contribute to render it altology. The necessary occupation of a ditcher gether impossible that they who take the field prepares him to work in the trenches, and to should maintain themselves at their own exfortify a camp, as well as to inclose a field. pense. Those two causes are, the progress of The ordinary pastimes of such husbandmen manufactures, and the improvement in the art are the same as those of shepherds, and are in of war.

the same manner the images of war. But as Though a husbandman should be employed husbandmen have less leisure than shepherds, in an expedition, provided it begins after seedthey are not so frequently employed in those time, and ends before harvest, the interruption pastimes. They are soldiers. but soldiers not of his business will not always occasion any

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