uon requires. It happens, however, that the goodness of the fleece depends, in a great measure, upon the health, growth, and bulk of the animal: the same attention which is necessary for the improvement of the carcase is, in some respect, sufficient for that of the fleece. Notwithstanding the degradation of price, English wool is said to have been improved considerably during the course even of the present century. The improvement, might, perhaps, have been greater if the price had been better; but the lowness of price, though it may have obstructed, yet certainly it has not altogether prevented that improve

ment.

The violence of these regulations, therefore, seems to have affected neither the quantity nor the quality of the annual produce of wool, so much as it might have been expected to do (though I think it probable that it may have affected the latter a good deal more than the former); and the interest of the growers of wool, though it must have been hurt in some degree, seems upon the whole, to have been much less hurt than could well have been imagined.

known, in great quantities. The great dif ference between the price in the home and that in the foreign market, presents such a temptation to smuggling, that all the rigour of the law cannot prevent it. This illegal exportation is advantageous to nobody but the smuggler. A legal exportation, subject to a tax, by affording a revenue to the sovereign, and thereby saving the imposition of some other, perhaps more burdensome and inconvenient taxes, might prove advantageous to all the different subjects of the state.

The exportation of fuller's earth, or fuller's clay, supposed to be necessary for preparing and cleansing the woollen manufactures, has been subjected to nearly the same penalties as the exportation of wool. Even tobacco-pipe clay, though acknowledged to be different from fuller's clay, yet, on account of their resemblance, and because fuller's clay might sometimes be exported as tobacco-pipe clay, has been laid under the same prohibitions and penalties.

By the 13th and 14th of Charles II. chap. 7, the exportation, not only of raw hides, but of tanned leather, except in the shape of boots, shoes, or slippers, was prohibited; and the law gave a monopoly to our boot-makers and shoe-makers, not only against our gra

These considerations, however, will not justify the absolute prohibition of the exportation of wool; but they will fully justify the imposition of a considerable tax upon that ex-ziers, but against our tanners. By subseportation.

To hurt, in any degree, the interest of any one order of citizens, for no other purpose but to promote that of some other, is evidently contrary to that justice and equality of treatment which the sovereign owes to all the different orders of his subjects. But the prolibition certainly hurts, in some degree, the interest of the growers of wool, for no other purpose but to promote that of the manufac

turers.

Gra

quent statutes, our tanners have got themselves exempted from this monopoly, upon paying a small tax of only one shilling on the hundred weight of tanned leather, weighing one hundred and twelve pounds. They have obtained likewise the drawback of two-thirds of the excise duties imposed upon their commodity, even when exported without further manufacture. All manufactures of leather may be exported duty free; and the exporter is besides entitled to the drawback of the Every different order of citizens is bound to whole duties of excise. Our graziers still contribute to the support of the sovereign or continue subject to the old monopoly. commonwealth. A tax of five, or even of ten ziers, separated from one another, and disshillings, upon the exportation of every tod persed through all the different corners of the of wool, would produce a very considerable country, cannot, without great difficulty, revenue to the sovereign. It would hurt the combine together for the purpose either of interest of the growers somewhat less than imposing monopolies upon their fellow-citithe prohibition, because it would not probab-zens, or of exempting themselves from such ly lower the price of wool quite so much. It as may have been imposed upon them by would afford a sufficient advantage to the manufacturer, because, though he might not buy his wool altogether so cheap as under the prohibition, he would still buy it at least five or ten shillings cheaper than any foreign manufacturer could buy it, besides saving the freight and insurance which the other would be obliged to pay. It is scarce possible to devise a tax which could produce any considerable revenue to the sovereign, and at the same time occasion so little inconveniency to any body.

The prohibition, notwithstanding all the penalties which guard it, does not prevent the exportation of wool. It is exported, it is well

other people. Manufacturers of all kinds, collected together in numerous bodies in all great cities, easily can. Even the horns of cattle are prohibited to be exported; and the two insignificant trades of the horner and comb-maker enjoy, in this respect, a monopoly against the graziers.

Restraints, either by prohibitions, or by taxes, upon the exportation of goods which are partially, but not completely manufactured, are not peculiar to the manufacture of leather. As long as any thing remains to be done, in order to fit any commodity for immediate use and consumption, our manufacturers think that they themselves ought to

have the doing of it. Woollen yarn and wor- from all duties, thought it likewise for their sted are prohibited to be exported, under the own interest to throw some small discourage. same penalties as wool Even white cloths ment upon their exportation. The avidity, are subject to a duty upon exportation; and however, which suggested this notable piece our dyers have so far obtained a monopoly of mercantile ingenuity, most probably disapagainst our clothiers. Our clothiers would pointed itself of its object. It necessarily probably have been able to defend themselves taught the importers to be more careful that against it; but it happens that the greater they might otherwise have been, that their part of our principal clothiers are themselves importation should not exceed what was nelikewise dyers. Watch-cases, clock-cases, and cessary for the supply of the home market. dial-plates for clocks and watches, have been The home market was at all times likely to prohibited to be exported. Our clock-makers be more scantily supplied; the commodities and watch-makers are, it seems, unwilling were at all times likely to be somewhat dearet that the price of this sort of workmanship there than they would have been, had the exshould be raised upon them by the competition portation been rendered as free as the impor of foreigners. tation. By some old statutes of Edward III. HenBy the above-mentioned statute, gum sery VIII. and Edward VI. the exportation of nega, or gum arabic, being among the enu. all metals was prohibited. Lead and tin were merated dyeing drugs, might be imported duty alone excepted, probably on account of the free. They were subjected, indeed, to a small great abundance of those metals; in the ex-poundage duty, amounting only to threepence portation of which a considerable part of the in the hundred weight, upon their re-exportatrade of the kingdom in those days consisted. tion. France enjoyed, at that time, an exFor the encouragement of the mining trade, clusive trade to the country most productive the 5th of William and Mary, chap. 17, ex-of those drugs, that which lies in the neighempted from this prohibition iron, copper, and bourhood of the Senegal; and the British mundic metal made from British ore. The market could not be easily supplied by the exportation of all sorts of copper bars, foreign immediate importation of them from the place as well as British, was afterwards permitted of growth. By the 25th Geo. II. therefore, by the 9th and 10th of Williain III. chap 26. The exportation of unmanufactured brass, of what is called gun-metal, bell-metal, and shroff metal, still continues to be prohibited. Brass manufactures of all sorts may be exported duty free.

The exportation of the materials of manufacture, where it is not altogether prohibited, is, in many cases, subjected to considerable

duties.

gum senega was allowed to be imported (contrary to the general dispositions of the act of navigation) from any part of Europe. As the law, however, did not mean to encourage this species of trade, so contrary to the general principles of the mercantile policy of Eng. land, it imposed a duty of ten shillings the hundred weight upon such importation, and no part of this duty was to be afterwards drawn back upon its exportation. The suc By the 8th Geo. I. chap. 15, the exporta- cessful war which began in 1755 gave Great tion of all goods, the produce of manufacture Britain the same exclusive trade to those counof Great Britain, upon which any duties had tries which France had enjoyed before. Our been imposed by former statutes, was rendered manufactures, as soon as the peace was made, duty free. The following goods, however, endeavoured to avail themselves of this adwere excepted: alum, lead, lead-ore, tin, vantage, and to establish a monopoly in their tanned leather, copperas, coals, wool, cards, own favour both against the growers and white woollen cloths, lapis calaminaris, skins against the importers of this commodity. By of all sorts, glue, coney hair or wool, hares the 5th of Geo. III. therefore, chap. 37, the wool, hair of all sorts, horses, and litharge of exportation of gum senega, from his majesty's lead. If you except horses, all these are either dominions in Africa, was confined to Great materials of manufacture, or incomplete manufactures (which may be considered as materials for still further manufacture), or instruments of trade. This statute leaves them subject to all the old duties which had ever been imposed upon them, the old subsidy, and one per cent. outwards.

Britain, and was subjected to all the same restrictions, regulations, forfeitures, and penalties, as that of the enumerated commodities of the British colonies in America and the West Indies. Its importation, indeed, was subjected to a small duty of sixpence the hun dred weight; but its re-exportation was subBy the same statute, a great number of fo- jected to the enormous duty of one pound ten reign drugs for dyers use are exempted from shillings the hundred weight. It was the inall duties upon importation. Each of them, tention of our manufacturers, that the whole however, is afterwards subjected to a certain produce of those countries should be imported duty, not indeed a very heavy one, upon ex- into Great Britain; and in order that they portation. Our dyers, it seems, while they themselves might be enabled to buy it at their thought it for their interest to encourage the own price, that no part of it should he ex importation of those drugs, by an exemption ported again, but at such an expense as would

sufficiently discourage that exportation. Their portation of frames or engines for knitting` avidity, however, upon this, as well as upon gloves or stockings, is prohibited, under the many other occasions, disappointed itself of its penalty, not only of the forfeiture of such object. This enormous duty presented such a frames or engines, so exported, or attempted temptation to smuggling, that great quanti- to be exported, but of forty pounds, one half ties of this commodity were clandestinely ex- to the king, the other to the person who shall ported, probably to all the manufacturing inform or sue for the same. In the same countries of Europe, but particularly to Hol- manner, by the 14th Geo. III. chap. 71, the land, not only from Great Britain, but from exportation to foreign parts, of any utensils Africa. Upon this account, by the 14th made use of in the cotton, linen, woollen, and Geo. III. chap. 10, this duty upon exporta- silk manufactures, is prohibited under the petion was reduced to five shillings the hundred nalty, not only of the forfeiture of such utenweight. sils, but of two hundred pounds, to be paid

In the book of rates, according to which by the person who shall offend in this manthe old subsidy was levied, beaver skins were ner; and likewise of two hundred pounds, to estimated at six shillings and eight pence a-be paid by the master of the ship, who shall piece; and the different subsidies and imposts knowingly suffer such utensils to be loaded on which, before the year 1722, had been laid board his ship. upon their importation, amounted to one-fifth

When such heavy penalties were imposed part of the rate, or to sixteen pence upon upon the exportation of the dead instruments each skin; all of which, except half the old of trade, it could not well be expected that subsidy, amounting only to twopence, was the living instrument, the artificer, should be drawn back upon exportation. This duty, up- allowed to go free. Accordingly, by the 5th on the importation of so important a material Geo. I. chap. 27, the person who shall be of manufacture, had been thought too high; convicted of enticing any artificer, of or in and, in the year 1722, the rate was reduced any of the manufactures of Great Britain, to to two shillings and sixpence, which reduced go into any foreign parts, in order to practise the duty upon importation to sixpence, and or teach his trade, is liable, for the first offence, of this only one-half was to be drawn back to be fined in any sum not exceeding one upon exportation. The same successful war hundred pounds, and to three months impriput the country most productive of beaver un-sonment, and until the fine shall be paid; and der the dominion of Great Britain; and bea- for the second offence, to be fined in any sum, ver skins being among the enumerated commodities, the exportation from America was consequently confined to the market of Great Britain. Our manufacturers soon bethought themselves of the advantage which they might make of this circumstance; and in the year 1764, the duty upon the importation of beaver skin was reduced to one penny, but the duty upon exportation was raised to sevenpence each skin, without any drawback of the duty upon importation. By the same law, a By the former of these two statutes, upon duty of eighteen pence the pound was im- proof that any person has been enticing any posed upon the exportation of beaver wool or artificer, or that any artificer has promised or woumbs, without making any alteration in the contracted to go into foreign parts, for the duty upon the importation of that commodity, purposes aforesaid, such artificer may be obwhich, when imported by British, and in Bri-liged to give security, at the discretion of the tish shipping, amounted at that time to between fourpence and fivepence the piece.

at the discretion of the court, and to imprisonment for twelve months, and until the fine shall be paid. By the 23d Geo. II. chap. 13, this penalty is increased, for the first offence, to five hundred pounds for every artificer so enticed, and to twelve months imprisonment, and until the fine shall be paid; and for the second offence, to one thousand pounds, and to two years imprisonment, and until the fine shall be paid.

court, that he shall not go beyond the seas, and may be committed to prison until he give such security.

Coals may be considered both as a material of manufacture, and as an instrument of trade. If any artificer has gone beyond the seas, Heavy duties, accordingly, have been imposed and is exercising or teaching his trade in any upon their exportation, amounting at present foreign country, upon warning being given to (1783) to more than five shillings the ton, or him by any of his majesty's ministers or conmore than fifteen shillings the chaldron, New-suls abroad, or by one of his majesty's secrecastle measure; which is, in most cases, more taries of state, for the time being, if he does than the original value of the commodity at not, within six months after such warning, re the coal-pit, or even at the shipping port for turn into this realm, and from henceforth exportation. abide and inhabit continually within the same, he is from thenceforth declared incapable of taking any legacy devised to him within this kingdom, or of being executor or administrator to any person, or of taking any lands within this kingdom, by descent, devise, or purchase

The exportation, however, of the instruments of trade, properly so called, is commonly restrained, not by high duties, but by absolute prohibitions. Thus, by the 7th and 3th of William III chap. 20, sect. 8, the ex

He likewise forfeits to the king all his lands, | duties from purchasing of a neighbouring goods, and chattels; is declared an alien in country, a commodity which our own climate every respect; and is put out of the king's protection.

It is unnecessary, I imagine, to observe how contrary such regulations are to the boasted liberty of the subject, of which we affect to be so very jealous; but which, in this case, is so plainly sacrificed to the futile interests of our merchants and manufacturers.

The laudable motive of all these regulations, is to extend our own manufactures, not by their own improvement, but by the depression of those of all our neighbours, and by putting an end, as much as possible, to the troublesome competition of such odious and disagreeable rivals. Our master manufacturers think it reasonable that they themselves should have the monopoly of the ingenuity of all their countrymen. Though by restraining, in some trades, the number of apprentices which can be employed at one time, and by imposing the necessity of a long apprenticeship in all trades, they endeavour, all of them, to confine the knowledge of their respective employments to as small a number as possible; they are unwilling, however, that any part of this small number should go abroad to instruct foreigners.

does not produce; but is obliged to purchase it of a distant country, though it is acknowledged, that the commodity of the distant country is of a worse quality than that of the near one. The home consumer is obliged to submit to this inconvenience, in order that the producer may import into the distant country some of his productions, upon more advantageous terms than he otherwise would have been allowed to do. The consumer, too, is obliged to pay whatever enhancement in the price of those very productions this forced exportation may occasion in the home market.

But in the system of laws which has been established for the management of our Ameri. can and West Indian colonies, the interest of the home consumer has been sacrificed to that of the producer, with a more extravagant profusion than in all our other commercial regulations. A great empire has been esta blished for the sole purpose of raising up a nation of customers, who should be obliged to buy, from the shops of our different producers, all the goods with which these could supply them.

For the sake of that little enhancement of price which this monopoly Consumption is the sole end and purpose might afford our producers, the home conof all production; and the interest of the pro-sumers have been burdened with the whole ducer ought to be attended to, only so far as it may be necessary for promoting that of the

consumer.

The maxim is so perfectly self-evident, that it would be absurd to attempt to prove it. But in the mercantile system, the interest of the consumer is almost constantly sacrificed to that of the producer; and it seems to consider production, and not consumption, as the ultimate end and object of all industry and commerce.

In the restraints upon the importation of all foreign commodities which can come into competition with those of our own growth or manufacture, the interest of the home consumer is evidently sacrificed to that of the producer. It is altogether for the benefit of the latter, that the former is obliged to pay that enhancement of price which this monopoly almost always occasions.

expense of maintaining and defending that empire. For this purpose, and for this purpose only, in the two last wars, more than two hundred millions have been spent, and a new debt of more than a hundred and seventy millions has been contracted, over and above all that had been expended for the same purpose in former wars. The interest of this debt alone is not only greater than the whole extraordinary profit which, it never could be pretended, was made by the monopoly of the colony trade, but than the whole value of that trade, or than the whole value of the goods which, at an average, have been annually exported to the colonies.

It cannot be very difficult to determine who have been the contrivers of this whole mercantile system; not the consumers, we may believe, whose interest has been entirely ne glected; but the producers, whose interest It is altogether for the benefit of the pro- has been so carefully attended to; and among ducer, that bounties are granted upon the this latter class, our merchants and manufac exportation of some of his productions. The turers have been by far the principal archihome consumer is obliged to pay, first, the tects. In the mercantile regulations which tax which is necessary for paying the bounty; have been taken notice of in this chapter, the and, secondly, the still greater tax which ne-interest of our manufacturers has been most cessarily arises from the enhancement of the peculiarly attended to; and the interest, not price of the commodity in the home market. so much of the consumers, as that of some By the famous treaty of commerce with other sets of producers, has been sacrificed Portugal, the consumer is prevented by high to it. Note 35.

THE agricultural systems of political economy will not require so long an explanation as that which I have thought it necessary to bestow upon the mercantile or commercial system.

That system which represents the produce of land as the sole source of the revenue and wealth of every country, has, so far as I know, never been adopted by any nation, and it at present exists only in the speculations of a few men of great learning and ingenuity in France. It would not, surely, be worth while to examine at great length the errors of a system which never has done, and probably never will do, any harm in any part of the world. I shall endeavour to explain, however, as distinctly as I can, the great outlines of this very ingenious system.

This

part of the produce of their industry. prohibition, joined to the restraints imposed by the ancient provincial laws of France upon the transportation of corn from one province to another, and to the arbitrary and degrading taxes which are levied upon the cultiva tors in almost all the provinces, discouraged and kept down the agriculture of that country very much below the state to which it would naturally have risen in so very fertile a soil, and so very happy a climate. This state of discouragement and depression was felt more or less in every different part of the country, and many different inquiries were set on foot concerning the causes of it. One of those causes appeared to be the preference given, by the institutions of Mr. Colbert, to the industry of the towns above that of the country.

If the rod be bent too much one way, says the proverb, in order to make it straight, you must bend it as much the other. The French philosophers, who have proposed the system which represents agriculture as the sole source of the revenue and wealth of every country, seem to have adopted this proverbial maxim; and, as in the plan of Mr. Colbert, the industry of the towns was certainly overvalued in comparison with that of the country, so in their system it seems to be as certainly undervalued.

The different orders of people, who have ever been supposed to contribute in any respect towards the annual produce of the land and labour of the country, they divide into first is the class of the The second is the class of the cultivators, of farmers and country labourers, whom they honour with the peculiar appellation of the productive class. The third is the class of artificers, manufacturers, and merchants, whom they endeavour to degrade by the humiliating appellation of the barren or unproductive class.

Mr. Colbert, the famous minister of Lewis XIV. was a man of probity, of great industry, and knowledge of detail; of great experience and acuteness in the examination of public accounts; and of abilities, in short, every way fitted for introducing method and good order into the collection and expendi ture of the public revenue. That minister three classes. The had unfortunately embraced all the prejudices proprietors of land. of the mercantile system, in its nature and essence a system of restraint and regulation, and such as could scarce fail to be agreeable to a laborious and plodding man of business, who had been accustomed to regulate the different departments of public offices, and to establish the necessary checks and controuls for confining each to its proper sphere. The The class of proprietors contributes to the industry and commerce of a great country, annual produce, by the expense which they he endeavoured to regulate upon the same may occasionally lay out upon the improvemodel as the departments of a public office; ment of the land, upon the buildings, drains, and instead of allowing every man to pursue inclosures, and other ameliorations, which his own interest his own way, upon the libe- they may either make or maintain upon it, ral plan of equality, liberty, and justice, he and by means of which the cultivators are enbestowed upon certain branches of industry abled, with the same capital, to raise a greatextraordinary privileges, while he laid others er produce, and consequently to pay a greater under as extraordinary restraints. He was rent. This advanced rent may be considered not only disposed, like other European ministers, to encourage more the industry of the towns than that of the country; but, in order to support the industry of the towns, he was willing even to depress and keep down that of the country. In order to render proThe cultivators or farmers contribute to the visions cheap to the inhabitants of the towns, annual produce, by what are in this system and thereby to encourage manufactures and called the original and annual expenses (deforeign commerce, he prohibited altogether penses primitives, et depenses annuelles), which the exportation of corn, and thus excluded they lay out upon the cultivation of the land, the inhabitants of the country from every fo- The original expenses consist in the instru reign market, for by far the most importantments of husbandry, in the stock of cattle, in

as the interest or profit due to the proprietor, upon the expense or capital which he thus employs in the improvement of his land. Such expenses are in this system called ground expenses (depenses foncieres).