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publican; and their governments, those of with great advantage. But, as the profit and three of the provinces of New England in success of the cultivation which is carried on particular, have hitherto been more republican by means of cattle, depend very much upon the good management of those cattle; so the The absolute governments of Spain, Por-profit and success of that which is carried on tugal, and France, on the contrary, take place by slaves must depend equally upon the good in their colonies; and the discretionary pow-management of those slaves; and in the good ers which such governments commonly dele- management of their slaves the French plantgate to all their inferior officers are, on ac-ers, I think it is generally allowed, are supecount of the great distance, naturally exer- rior to the English. The law, so far as it cised there with more than ordinary violence. gives some weak protection to the slave against Under all absolute governments, there is more the violence of his master, is likely to be bet liberty in the capital than in any other part of ter executed in a colony where the governthe country. The sovereign himself can ne- ment is in a great measure arbitrary, than in ver have either interest or inclination to per- one where it is altogether free. In every counvert the order of justice, or to oppress the great | try where the unfortunate law of slavery is esbody of the people. In the capital, his pre- tablished, the magistrate, when he protects sence overawes, more or less, all his inferior the slave, intermeddles in some measure in officers, who, in the remoter provinces, from the management of the private property of whence the complaints of the people are less the master; and, in a free country, where the likely to reach him, can exercise their tyranny master is, perhaps, either a member of the cowith much more safety. But the European lony assembly, or an elector of such a memcolonies in America are more remote than ber, he dares not do this but with the greatthe most distant provinces of the greatest em- est caution and circumspection. The respect pires which had ever been known before. The which he is obliged to pay to the master, rengovernment of the English colonies is, per- ders it more difficult for him to protect the haps, the only one which, since the world be- slave. But in a country where the governgan, could give perfect security to the inha- ment is in a great measure arbitrary, where it bitants of so very distant a province. The is usual for the magistrate to intermeddle even administration of the French colonies, how-in the management of the private property of ever, has always been conducted with much individuals, and to send them, perhaps, a letmore gentleness and moderation than that of tre de cachet, if they do not manage it accordthe Spanish and Portuguese. This superio- ing to his liking, it is much easier for him to rity of conduct is suitable both to the charac- give some protection to the slave; and comter of the French nation, and to what forms mon humanity naturally disposes him to do the character of every nation, the nature of so. The protection of the magistrate renders their government, which, though arbitrary and the slave less contemptible in the eyes of his violent in comparison with that of Great Bri-master, who is thereby induced to consider tain, is legal and free in comparison with those of Spain and Portugal.

It is in the progress of the North American colonies, however, that the superiority of the English policy chiefly appears. The progress of the sugar colonies of France has been at least equal, perhaps superior, to that of the greater part of those of England; and yet the sugar colonies of England enjoy a free government, nearly of the same kind with that which takes place in her colonies of North America. But the sugar colonies of France are not discouraged, like those of England, from refining their own sugar; and what is still of greater importance, the genius of their government naturally introduces a better management of their negro slaves.

him with more regard, and to treat him with more gentleness. Gentle usage renders the slave not only more faithful, but more intelligent, and, therefore, upon a double account, more useful. He approaches more to the condition of a free servant, and may possess some degree of integrity and attachment to his master's interest; virtues which frequently belong to free servants, but which never can belong to a slave, who is treated as slaves commonly are in countries where the master is perfectly free and secure.

'That the condition of a slave is better under an arbitrary than under a free government, is, I believe, supported by the history of all ages and nations. In the Roman history, the first time we read of the magistrate interposing to In all European colonies, the culture of protect the slave from the violence of his the sugar-cane is carried on by negro slaves.master, is under the emperors. When Vidius The constitution of those who have been born in the temperate climate of Europe could not, it is supposed, support the labour of digging the ground under the burning sun of the West Indies; and the culture of the sugar-cane, as it is managed at present, is all hand labour; though, in the opinion of many, the drill plough might be introduced into it

Pollio, in the presence of Augustus, ordered one of his slaves, who had committed a slight fault, to be cut into pieces and thrown into his fish-pond, in order to feed his fishes, the emperor commanded him, with indignation, to emancipate immediately, not only that slave, but all the others that belonged to him. Under the republic no magistrate could have

had authority enough to protect the slave, much the culture of the sugar-cane. Upon all these less to punish the master.

different occasions, it was not the wisdom and policy, but the disorder and injustice of the European governments, which peopled and cultivated America.

The stock, it is to be observed, which has improved the sugar colonies of France, particularly the great colony of St Domingo, has been raised almost entirely from the gradual In effectuating some of the most important improvement and cultivation of those colo- of these establishments, the different govern. nies. It has been almost altogether the pro-ments of Europe had as little merit as in pro. duce of the soil and of the industry of the co-jecting them. The conquest of Mexico was lonists, or, what comes to the same thing, the the project, not of the council of Spain, but price of that produce, gradually accumulated of a governor of Cuba; and it was effectuated by good management, and employed in rais-by the spirit of the bold adventurer to whom ing a still greater produce. But the stock it was entrusted, in spite of every thing which which has improved and cultivated the sugar that governor, who soon repented of having colonies of England, has, a great part of it, trusted such a person, could do to thwart it. been sent out from England, and has by no The conquerors of Chili and Peru, and of almeans been altogether the produce of the soil most all the other Spanish settlements upon and industry of the colonists. The prosperity the continent of America, carried out with of the English sugar colonies has been in a them no other public encouragement, but a great measure owing to the great riches of general permission to make settlements and England, of which a part has overflowed, if conquests in the name of the king of Spain. one may say so, upon these colonies. But Those adventures were all at the private risk the prosperity of the sugar colonies of France and expense of the adventurers. The govern has been entirely owing to the good conduct ment of Spain contributed scarce any thing of the colonists, which must therefore have to any of them. That of England contrihad some superiority over that of the Eng-buted as little towards effectuating the estalish; and this superiority has been remarked blishment of some of its most important caloin nothing so much as in the good manage-nies in North America. ment of their slaves.

Such have been the general outlines of the policy of the different European nations with regard to their colonies.

The policy of Europe, therefore, has very little to boast of, either in the original establishment, or, so far as concerns their internal government, in the subsequent prosperity of the colonies of America.

When those establishments were effectuated, and had become so considerable as to attract the attention of the mother country, the first regulations which she made with regard to them, had always in view to secure to herself the monopoly of their commerce; to confine their market, and to enlarge her own at their expense, and, consequently, rather to damp and discourage, than to quicken and forward the course of their prosperity. In the different ways in which this monopoly has been exer cised, consists one of the most essential differences in the policy of the different European nations with regard to their colonies. The best of them all, that of England, is only somewhat less illiberal and oppressive than that of any the rest.

Folly and injustice seem to have been the principles which presided over and directed the first project of establishing those colonies; the folly of hunting after gold and silver mines, and the injustice of coveting the possession of a country whose harmless natives, far from having ever injured the people of Europe, had received the first adventurers with every mark of kindness and hospitality. In what way, therefore, has the policy The adventurers, indeed, who formed some Europe contributed either to the first estaof the latter establishments, joined to the chi-blishment, or to the present grandeur of the merical project of finding gold and silver mines, other motives more reasonable and more laudable; but even these motives do very little honour to the policy of Europe.

colonies of America? In one way, and in one way only, it has contributed a good deal. Magna virúm mater! It bred and formed the men who were capable of achieving such great The English puritans, restrained at home, actions, and of laying the foundation of sc fled for freedom to America, and established great an empire; and there is no other quarthere the four governments of New England. ter of the world, of which the policy is ca The English catholics, treated with much pable of forming, or has ever actually, and in greater injustice, established that of Mary- fact, formed such men. The colonies owe to land; the quakers, that of Pennsylvania. The the policy of Europe the education and great Portuguese Jews, persecuted by the inquisi. views of their active and enterprizing foundtion, stript of their fortunes, and banished to ers; and some of the greatest and most im Brazil, introduced, by their example, some portant of them, so far as concerns their insort of order and industry among the trans-ternal government, owe to it scarce any thing ported felons and strumpets by whom that co-else.

lony was originally peopled, and taught them

PART IIL

Of the Advantages which Europe has derived from the Discovery of America, and from that of a Passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope.

quarter of the world. But those commodities must be purchased with something which is either the produce of the industry of Hungary and Poland, or with something which had been purchased with some part of that produce. Those commodities of America are new values, new equivalents, introduced into Hungary and Poland, to be exchanged there for the surplus produce of these countries. SUCH are the advantages which the colonies By being carried thither, they create a new of America have derived from the policy of and more extensive market for that surplus Europe. produce. They raise its value, and thereby What are those which Europe has derived contribute to encourage its increase. Though from the discovery and colonization of Ame- no part of it may ever be carried to America, rica? it may be carried to other countries, which

Those advantages may be divided, first, in-purchase it with a part of their share of the to the general advantages which Europe, con- surplus produce of America, and it may find sidered as one great country, has derived from a market by means of the circulation of that those great events; and, secondly, into the trade which was originally put into motion particular advantages which each colonizing by the surplus produce of America. country has derived from the colonies which Those great events may even have contriparticularly belong to it, in consequence of the authority or dominion which it exercises over them.

The general advantages which Europe, considered as one great country, has derived from the discovery and colonization of America, consist, first, in the increase of its enjoyments; and, secondly, in the augmentation of its industry.

The surplus produce of America imported into Europe, furnishes the inhabitants of this great continent with a variety of commodities which they could not otherwise have possess ed; some for conveniency and use, some for pleasure, and some for ornament; and thereby contributes to increase their enjoyments.

buted to increase the enjoyments, and to augment the industry, of countries which not only never sent any commodities to America, but never received any from it. Even such countries may have received a greater abundance of other commodities from countries, of which the surplus produce had been augmented by means of the American trade. This greater abundance, as it must necessarily have in. creased their enjoyments, so it must likewise have augmented their industry. A greater number of new equivalents, of some kind or other, must have been presented to them to be exchanged for the surplus produce of that industry. A more extensive market must have been created for that surplus produce, sú The discovery and colonization of Ame- as to raise its value, and thereby encourage rica, it will readily be allowed, have contri- its increase. The mass of commodities anbuted to augment the industry, first, of all nually thrown into the great circle of Eurothe countries which trade to it directly, such pean commerce, and by its various revolutions as Spain, Portugal, France, and England; annually distributed among all the different and, secondly, of all those which, without nations comprehended within it, must have trading to it directly, send, through the me- been augmented by the whole surplus prodium of other countries, goods to it of their duce of America. A greater share of this own produce, such as Austrian Flanders, and greater mass, therefore, is likely to have fallen some provinces of Germany, which, through to each of those nations, to have increased the medium of the countries before mentioned, their enjoyments, and augmented their insend to it a considerable quantity of linen and dustry. other goods. All such countries have evi- The exclusive trade of the mother countrie dently gained a more extensive market for tends to diminish, or at least to keep down betheir surplus produce, and must consequently low what they would otherwise rise to, both have been encouraged to increase its quan- the enjoyments and industry of all those naity. tions in general, and of the American colonies But that those great events should likewise in particular. It is a dead weight upon the have contributed to encourage the industry action of one of the great springs which puts of countries such as Hungary and Poland, into motion a great part of the business of which may never, perhaps, have sent a single mankind. By rendering the colony produce commodity of their own produce to America, dearer in all other countries, it lessens its conis not, perhaps, altogether so evident. That sumption, and thereby cramps the industry of those events have done so, however, cannot the colonies, and both the enjoyments and the De doubted. Some part of the produce of industry of all other countries, which both enAmerica is consumed in Hungary and Po-joy less when they pay more for what they enand, and there is some demand there for the joy, and produce less when they get less for sugar, chocolate. and tobacco, of that new what they produce. By rendering the pro

duce of all other countries dearer in the colo ticular, have seldom been equal to the ex nies, it cramps in the same manner the indus. pense laid out upon them in time of peace, try of all other colonies, and both the enjoy- and never sufficient to defray that which they ments and the industry of the colonies. It is occasioned in time of war.

in those peculiar advantages which are sup posed to result from provinces of so very pe culiar a nature as the European colonies of America; and the exclusive trade, it is acknowledged, is the sole source of all those peculiar advantages.

Such colonies, a clog which, for the supposed benefit of some therefore, have been a source of expense, and particular countries, embarrasses the pleasures not of revenue, to their respective mother and encumbers the industry of all other coun- countries. tries, but of the colonies more than of any The advantages of such colonies to their other. It not only excludes as much as pos- respective mother countries, consist altogether sible all other countries from one particular market, but it confines as much as possible the colonies to one particular market; and the difference is very great between being excluded from one particular market when all others are open, and being confined to one particular market when all others are shut up. In consequence of this exclusive trade, all The surplus produce of the colonies, however, that part of the surplus produce of the Eng. is the original source of all that increase of lish colonies, for example, which consists in enjoyments and industry which Europe de- what are called enumerated commodities, can rives from the discovery and colonization of be sent to no other country but England. America, and the exclusive trade of the mo- Other countries must afterwards buy it of ther countries tends to render this source her. It must be cheaper, therefore, in Engmuch less abundant than it otherwise would land than it can be in any other country, and be. must contribute more to increase the enjoy The particular advantages which each colo- ments of England than those of any other nizing country derives from the colonies which country. It must likewise contribute more particularly belong to it, are of two different to encourage her industry. For all those parts kinds; first, those common advantages which of her own surplus produce which England every empire derives from the provinces subject to its dominion; and, secondly, those peculiar advantages which are supposed to result from provinces of so very peculiar a nature as the European colonies of America.

any revenue.

exchanges for those enumerated commodities, she must get a better price than any other countries can get for the like parts of theirs, when they exchange them for the same commodities. The manufactures of England, for The common advantages which every em- example, will purchase a greater quantity of pire derives from the provinces subject to its the sugar and tobacco of her own colonies dominion consist, first, in the military force than the like manufactures of other countries which they furnish for its defence; and, se- can purchase of that sugar and tobacco. So condly, in the revenue which they furnish for far, therefore, as the manufactures of Engthe support of its civil government. The Ro- land and those of other countries are both to man colonies furnished occasionally both the be exchanged for the sugar and tobacco of the one and the other. The Greek colonies some- English colonies, this superiority of price times furnished a military force, but seldom gives an encouragement to the former beyond They seldom acknowledged what the latter can, in these circumstances, themselves subject to the dominion of the mo- enjoy. The exclusive trade of the colonies, ther city. They were generally her allies in therefore, as it diminishes, or at least keeps war, but very seldom her subjects in peace. down below what they would otherwise rise The European colonies of America have to, both the enjoyments and the industry of never yet furnished any military force for the the countries which do not possess it, so it defence of the mother country. The military gives an evident advantage to the countries force has never yet been sufficient for their which do possess it over those other counown defence; and in the different wars in tries. which the mother countries have been engaged, This advantage, however, will, perhaps, be the defence of their colonies has generally oc- found to be rather what may be called a relacasioned a very considerable distraction of the tive than an absolute advantage, and to give inilitary force of those countries. In this re- a superiority to the country which enjoys it, spect, therefore, all the European colonies rather by depressing the industry and prohave, without exception, been a cause rather duce of other countries, than by raising those of weakness than of strength to their respec- of that particular country above what they tive mother countries. would naturally rise to in the case of a free trade.

The colonies of Spain and Portugal only have contributed any revenue towards the defence of the mother country, or the support of her civil government The taxes which have been levied upon those of other European nations, upon those of England in par

The tobacco of Maryland and Virginia, for example, by means of the monopoly which England enjoys of it, certainly comes cheaper to England than it can do to France, to whom England commonly sells a considerable par

of it. But had France and all other Euro- | necessarily sold very dear. The capital which pean countries been at all times allowed a free had before bought but a part of the surplus trade to Maryland and Virginia, the tobacco produce of the colonies, was now all that was of those colonies might by this time have employed to buy the whole. But it could come cheaper than it actually does, not only not buy the whole at any thing near the old to all those other countries, but likewise to price; and therefore, whatever it did buy, it England. The produce of tobacco, in con- necessarily bought very cheap. But in an sequence of a market so much more exten- employment of capital, in which the merchant sive than any which it has hitherto enjoyed, sold very dear, and bought very cheap, the might, and probably would, by this time have profit must have been very great, and much been so much increased as to reduce the pro- above the ordinary level of profit in other fits of a tobacco plantation to their natural branches of trade. This superiority of profit level with those of a corn plantation, which it in the colony trade could not fail to draw from is supposed they are still somewhat above. other branches of trade a part of the capital The price of tobacco might, and probably which had before been employed in them. would, by this time have fallen somewhat But this revulsion of capital, as it must have lower than it is at present. An equal quan- gradually increased the competition of capitity of the commodities, either of England or tals in the colony trade, so it must have graof those other countries, might have purchased dually diminished that competition in all those in Maryland and Virginia a greater quantity of other branches of trade; as it must have gratobacco than it can do at present, and conse-dually lowered the profits of the one, so it quently have been sold there for so much a must have gradually raised those of the other, better price. So far as that weed, therefore, till the profits of all came to a new level, difcan, by its cheapness and abundance, increase ferent from, and somewhat higher, than that the enjoyments, or augment the industry, at which they had been before. either of England or of any other country, it This double effect of drawing capital from would probably, in the case of a free trade, all other trades, and of raising the rate of have produced both these effects in somewhat profit somewhat higher than it otherwise a greater degree than it can do at present. would have been in all trades, was not only England, indeed, would not, in this case, have produced by this monopoly upon its first eshad any advantage over other countries. She tablishment, but has continued to be produced might have bought the tobacco of her colo- by it ever since. nies somewhat cheaper, and consequently have sold some of her own commodities somewhat dearer, than the actually does; but she could neither have bought the one cheaper, nor sold the other dearer, than any other country might have done. She might, perhaps, have gained an absolute, but she would certainly have lost a relative advantage.

First, This monopoly has been continually drawing capital from all other trades, to be employed in that of the colonies.

Though the wealth of Great Britain has increased very much since the establishment of the act of navigation, it certainly has not increased in the same proportion as that or the colonies. But the foreign trade of every In order, however, to obtain this relative country naturally increases in proportion to advantage in the colony trade, in order to exe-its wealth, its surplus produce in proportion cute the invidious and malignant project of to its whole produce; and Great Britain excluding, as much as possible, other nations having engrossed to herself almost the whole from any share in it, England, there are very of what may be called the foreign trade of probable reasons for believing, has not only the colonies, and her capital not having insacrificed a part of the absolute advantage creased in the same proportion as the extent which she, as well as every other nation, might of that trade, she could not carry it on withhave derived from that trade, but has subjected out continually withdrawing from other herself both to an absolute and to a relative branches of trade some part of the capital disadvantage in almost every other branch of which had before been employed in them, as trade. well as withholding from them a great deal When, by the act of navigation, England more which would otherwise have gone to assumed to herself the monopoly of the co- them. Since the establishment of the act of lony trade, the foreign capitals which had be-navigation, accordingly, the colony trade has fore been employed in it, were necessarily been continually increasing, while many other withdrawn from it. The English capital, branches of foreign trade, particularly of that which had before carried on but a part of it, to other parts of Europe, have been continuwas now to carry on the whole. The capital ally decaying. Our manufactures for foreign which had before supplied the colonies with sale, instead of being suited, as before the but a part of the goods which they wanted act of navigation, to the neighbouring market from Europe, was now all that was employed of Europe, or to the more distant one of the to supply them with the whole. But it could countries which lie round the Mediterranean not supply them with the whole; and the sea, have, the greater part of them, been acgoods with which it did supply them were commodated to the still more distant one of

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