in value with the land of Indiana and Illinois. But east of the lake are lands looking well, covered with waving prairie grass, much cheaper in price than the land to the south and west, but the soil is extremely shallow and the underlying rock is the old Archaean (granite, gneisses and crystalines) of the denuded Laurentian Peneplain, which does not weather into fertile soils. In fact, great areas around Hudson bay are swept clear of soil, and the absence of population, cities, transportation facilities, and other signs of civilization indicate the fact. When, considering the further good or bad qualities of that region, the bitter cold of winter will make the proposed emigrant pause and think. Temperatures occur as low as 40 degrees below our particularly cold days. Rainfall, so important in the growth of crops, has been observed and recorded as being less than half the rainfall of Indiana, and the question immediately comes. up, "Why can people live and thrive. there?" The farmer from Indiana in Saskatchewan Povince, Canada, finds his farming operations changed. He cannot raise Indian corn. The growing season is too short for it to mature. He must turn his attention to wheat, oats, rye, flax, and the hardy grasses. His wheat must be sown in spring instead of autumn. The small rainfall is most abundant in spring when the wheat is sown and for the two or three months necessary for its growth. The wheat develops its grain and ripens. best if the weather be dry. Harvest and threshing require it. The whole procedure of farming in that region, or in any region, is adjusted to soil and climate conditions. Many people in Indiana wonder why spring wheat is

not grown here. The explanation again is climatic. The moisture is too abundant. The warm, humid air is not favorable for the maturing of the grain. The kernels are shriveled instead of being plump and rounded. The wheat is very liable to attack by "rust," a parasitic growth on the straw, favored by warm, damp weather. In the winter wheat belt (geographical idea), as well as in the spring wheat region, the care of the farmer is constantly given to the development of earlier and earlier varieites of grain, indicating a desire for a better adaptation to climatic conditions. The agricultural department is very energetic in pocuring and testing new varieties of wheat for particular sections of the country, and especially in the semi-arid western. plains and plateaus. Examples of geographical relations can be multiplied indefinitely.

The geographical relations in history need but to be suggested to lead teacher and student to see that the whole groundwork of history is geographical. Why was Chattanooga such an important point in the operations. of the Civil War? It commands a network of valleys leading in different directions but opening to both the north and south sides of the Appalachian Mountain system. In short, it stands in a gateway between the north and south. Why did battles of the Revolution occur at Saratoga, Ticonderoga and on Lake Champlain? They were points commanding the easiest and shortest route between New York and Canada. History can not be well taught without constant reference to the map, and diligent study of the physical geography of the regions.

The renaissance has been characterized by Dr. Paul Monroe as "the protest of individualism against authority in intellectual and social aspects of life." The new interests and activities which it introduced may be included under three heads, viz.: (1) the real life of the past, the world of the ancient Greeks and Romans; (2) the subjective world of the emotions—the joy of living, the contemplative pleasures and satisfactions of this life, and the appreciation of the beautiful; (3) the natural worldphysical nature-unknown to the people of the mediaeval centuries because its "study had been considered ignoble and debasing in its influence on man." A glance at these new interests suggests at once how the first lead to a more general and a more intensive study of the Greek and Latin languages and their literature, the second to appreciation of the beautiful in literary form as well as appreciation of art in every form, and the third to invention and discovery through direct observation and experimentation with natural phenomena. It may be noted that these latter, in turn, led to geographical discovery, to exploration both by land and by sea, and to those astronomical discoveries that later became the basis of modern scientific thought.

It is conceded that "modern edu

cation, which is correlated with modern science, dates from the time when men began to study nature, and to record their experience. The first man who, in modern times, attempted to do this was the Franciscan friar, Roger Bacon (1214-1294); but he, despite certain profound, and almost marvellous, insights, was still SO deeply tinged with mysticism and respect for authority that his efforts met with little or no response, and he spent many years of his life in prison, as a disturber of the faith."

Lionardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is considered the first man who really. was free from the limitations of authority and mysticism. He committed himself to the teachings of experience and is now coming to be regarded as "perhaps the greatest genius that Euope ever saw." While he practiced the method of science, he did so without formulating it. This came later as the work of Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who is called the father of modern science. He "secured currency and following for the experimental and inductive method of science, as opposed to the authoritative and deductive. Two great discoveries, that of the Copernican astronomy and that of America, both contributing to break up that view of the universe which lay at the basis of mediaeval science, helped to facili

tate this change. From now on, we find a tendency to withdraw education from authority and the hands of the clergy, and to commit it to science. and the hands of laymen. Bacon himself did little directly for the cause of education, but his works proved an inspiration to men who did much. Pominent among these was the man who has been called the 'Bacon modern education,' and may justly be called its father-John Amos Comenius."

Although the Jesuits had done something toward systematizing the higher studies, it was left for Comenius to arrange a course of instruction extending from infancy to manhood. His course included four grades or schools: (1) the home-school, which should be found in every family (perhaps the forerunner of the kindergarten); (2) the primary, elementary, common, or district school, which should be established in every village, parish or district; (3) the grammar or Latin school (gymnasium), to be established in every city or township; (4) the academy, college or university in every kingdom, province or state.

each of these the course was to extend over six years, so that the pupil who took the whole would finish at the age of twenty-four. It is also interesting to note that while each school was preparatory to all that followed it, it was also complete in itself, representing a grade of general education corresponding to a certain grade of vocation. It was intended that every child should pass through the first two grades or schools and the instruction in them was to be given in the common language-hence the

term "common" schools. The

higher schools were provided for the boys who would engage in the professions.

In his "Aspects of Education" Browning says: "Education in Euope has passed though three phases, which may conveniently be called humanism, realism and naturalism. The first is grounded upon the study of language, and especially of the two dead languages, Greek and Latin. The second is based upon the study of things instead of words, the education of the mind through the eye and the hand. The third is an attempt to build up the whole nature of man-to educate first his body, then his character and lastly his mind.” Educational realism may be defined as the substitution of the study of things, the real and the practical, for that of abstract ideas about things. It placed the emphasis upon natural phenomena and social institutions rather than languages and literature. The humanistic-realist attempted to master his own environment, natural and social, through a knowledge of the broader life of the ancients. Rabelais (14831553) and John Milton (1608-1674) are representative of humanistic-realists. "The chief importance of humanisticrealism is that it led directly to the sense-realism that soon found a place in organized educational work." cial-realism looked upon the humanistic culture as an inadequate preparation for the life of the gentleman. This view regarded education as the direct preparation for the life of the "man of the world." Montaigne (15331592) was one of its strongest representatives. This type was not found' widely represented in the schools. It was rather the expression of an edu- .

cational practice common among the upper classes of society during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in most European countries. Sense-realism is derived from the earlier realism and the term itself is derived from the fundamental belief that knowledge comes primarily through the senses. "Education was to be founded on a training in sense perception rather than on pure memory activities and was to be directed toward a different kind of subject matter. Mulcaster (1531-1611), Francis Bacon (15611626), Wolfgang Ratke (1571-1635), and John Amos Comenius (15921670), are the most important representatives of this idea in education. From whatever standpoint considered Comenius is one of the most important of the advocates of this movement. His theoretical writings as well as his treatment of practical schoolroom problems are such as to make him one of the leading characters in the history of education.

"Comenius, the prince of schoolmasters, produced practically no effect on the school organization and educational development of the following century." Professor Will S. Mon

roe says: "The causes for this universal neglect are not easily explained. That he lived most of his days inexile; that he belonged to a religious community that was numerically insignificant and which suffered all those persecutions following in the train of the Thirty Years' War; that indiscretion entangled him in alleged prophetic revelations, which subsequently turned out the baldest impostures; and, more important than all, that schoolmasters did not wish to be disturbed by a man with ideas-these facts help to explain the universal neglect into which his name and writings fell."

Professor Earl Barnes says: "There is nothing startling about the educatonal reforms of Comenius today. They are the commonplace talk of all school conventions. But to see them. when no one else has formulated them, to enunciate them before an audience often hostile, and to devote a life to teaching them and working them out -this requires a broad mind and something of the spirit of the martyr, and both these elements were strong. in Comenius."

Supt. J. A. Shawan, Columbus, O. said:

In considering the qualifications necessary to enter a Normal School, one must take into account the essential elements of a good teacher-these are personality, scholarship and training. Under personality would exist those natural elements which constitute the born teacher-hopefulness, cheerfulness, tact and love. "As is the teacher, so is the school." A gloomy temperament never wins or helps the child. Closely allied to personality is physical strength and power of endurance. Without health, cheerfulness, vivacity and enthusiasm are practically impossible. First of all, then, personality and good health should be considered in the preparation of the teacher and hence for entrance into the Normal School.

ferably Latin.

A complete course in algebra and geometry; physics and botany, in science; music and drawing.

On the cultural side, a full course in history, English and literature is absolutely essential to a good teach

er.

It is a rule in our own city to require an average standing of not less than 85 per cent throughout the fouryear high school course. Those who come from other high schools than our own must present credentials and give such evidence of good scholarship as may be required by the principal. If the work of preparation has been done in a preparatory school a full equivalent of a strong four-year high school course is required.

In these days of educational opportunity there is little reason for admitting any one to the Normal School, the gateway to the teaching profession, who does not have the personality and the academic preparation to take the training required.