Under the present rules of the association, all freight cars must be equipped with cast-steel truck side frames to be acceptable in interchange and all side frames applied to new and rebuilt cars must conform to the latest specifications. of the association.

High-speed freight-car trucks.

In the latter part of 1938 it was decided to conduct an investigation of trucks for high-speed freight service and, if necessary, make tests covering all phases of the problem, including brakes, wheels, etc.

On January 12, 1939, there was held a meeting of the committee in charge of these tests with representatives of the committee on car construction, committee on brakes and brake equipment, and committee on wheels, and representatives of the various truck manufacturers, at which time manufacturers were invited to participate in tests of trucks which they had developed or which they had in process of development. Eleven trucks were tested, including the conventional design of Association of American Railroads' spring plank truck equipped with plain coil springs and integral box side frames. These tests were conducted on the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad from Altoona, Pa., to Lockhaven, using a special test train fully equipped with the necessary recording instruments. The first test run was made on June 1, 1939. These tests were conducted at speeds

up to slightly over £0 miles per hour.

Complete report of these tests was published by the Association of American Railroads in April 1940. The association reimbursed the Pennsylvania Railroad for out-of-pocket expense in connection with operation of the test train. These tests were conducted under the direction of the mechanical engineer of the division and a special subcommittee appointed for this purpose.

Since these tests were completed there has been considerable development of trucks designed for this type of service, and consideration is now being given to further tests covering developments which have occurred since the conclusion of the tests conducted in 1939.

Truck springs.

In cooperation with the manufacturers of railway helical springs, a research program is now being conducted under the direction of the mechanical engineer and a special subcommittee of the mechanical division, Association of American Railroads, to determine what improvements can and should be made in railway truck springs.

Tests of freight-car trucks and truck springs designed to reduce lading damage caused by vertical oscillation.

In December 1932 the car construction committee of the American Railway Association, now Association of American Railroads, appointed a subcommittee to investigate the merits of various devices which had been put on the market for the purpose of reducing vertical oscillation of freight cars.

This committee held its first meeting early in 1933, at which meeting a program of procedure was formulated. The committee recommended tests to find out the various devices available to improve riding qualities of freight cars and what was the usual life of these devices.

These tests were started in September 1933 and completed in November 1933, and were conducted on the Erie Railroad, electrified branch, from Rochester, N. Y., to Avon, N. Y., using two specially constructed and equipped test cars which were rented from the Symington Co.

These road tests were followed by laboratory tests conducted at the draft gear testing laboratory of the Association of American Railroads at Purdue University, and by service tests under refrigerator cars of the General American Transportation Corporation, operating in fast service between Chicago, Ill., and Boston, Mass.

One car set of each of the devices on the market was tested; in the preliminary riding quality road test, in the endurance road test, and at the laboratory. Complete and final report of these tests was published by the Association of American Railroads in December 1937.

Tank cars.

The present tank-car equipment operated on American railroads, both by the railroads themselves and private car companies, is the result of extensive study and research. Tank cars make possible the economical and safe transportation of liquids in bulk such as oil, gasoline, benzine, various acids and chemicals, liquefied gases, molasses, corn sirup, corn oil, cottonseed oil, etc.

Through the Master Car Builders' Association complete specifications were adopted in 1903. The specifications adopted at that time covered only cars for petroleum products. Since that time specifications have been prepared and adopted for many different classes of tank cars for different purposes. The formulation of these specifications has involved many tests and much study and research. This work has been handled for the railroads by the committee on tank cars of the Association of American Railroads and the Bureau of Explosives in cooperation with the builders and users of tank cars.

Throughout the years from 1903 to date a large number of research projects in connection with tank cars and their appurtenances have been carried on under the direction of the committee on tank cars. Among others, these include safety valve and dome cover tests conducted jointly by the Committee on Tank Cars of the American Association of Railroads and the American Petroleum Institute and representatives of the tank car builders.

The association owns a testing plant which is located at Purdue University for the purpose of conducting such tests. All new designs of dome covers, safety valves, and outlet valves are tested at this plant.

During the years 1929 and 1930, applications were received from builders of class 105 forge welded tanks to permit the welding of such tanks by use of natural gas into which had been introduced superheated steam instead of water gas as required by the specifications for tank cars. In order to intelligently consider these applications, arrangements were made to conduct thorough and complete tests, using miniature tanks manufactured using water gas for forge welding method and using natural gas as proposed. Manufacturers of class 105 tanks were invited to cooperate in these tests.

When the plans for these tests became known, some tank builders requested permission to include tanks manufactured by electric fusion welding. This request was granted by the committee.

Five miniature tanks of the same plate thickness standard for class 105 tanks were tested as follows:

American Welding Co. roller forged welded tank, made using water gas. Columbiana Boiler Co. hammer welded tank, made using natural gas and superheated steam.

H. W. Keilogg Co. fusion welded tank, using electric arc-welding process. Petroleum Iron Works fusion welded tank, using electric arc-welding process. These tanks were tested to destruction at the plant of the General American Tank Car Corporation at East Chicago, Ind.

Specimens of the welding employed, using extension of the same plates from which the tanks were made and subjected to the same heat treatment as the tanks, were thoroughly tested for physical properties at the laboratory of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway at Chicago. Sections of the welds were also cut from the destroyed tanks and subjected to similar physical tests. These physical specimens were also carefully examined by means of X-ray photographs. These tests were made during the latter part of 1931 and the year 1932.

As a result of these tests and the resulting recommendations from the committee on tank cars, the Interstate Commerce Commission by its order of June 4, 1932, modified the specifications for forge-welded class 105 tanks to read as follows:

"SECTION 5. (a) Welding.-All seams must be lap welded by the water gas process, hammered or rolled, or other lap welded or rolled process which investigation and laboratory tests by the mechanical division of the American Railway Association have proven will produce equivalent or superior results."

As a result of these tests and upon recommendation of the committee on tank cars to the Interstate Commerce Commission, and following a formal hearing before the Commission, specifications have been adopted for a number of classes of fusion welded tank cars and several thousand such cars have been built and are now in service.

The development in tank-car designs and specifications effected through this research work makes it possible to transport economically in bulk practically all liquid, semiliquid, and gaseous products such as fuel oil, naphtha, benzine. kerosene, gasoline, casing-head gasoline, acids, butane, propane, helium, vinegar, molasses, etc.

This development of transportation of liquid and liquefied gas in bulk by rail has been a tremendous advantage during the present war effort. The development of proper containers for bulk transportation of such commodities through research investigation and tests is a continuing project.

During the present war emergency and to release large steel plates for the war effort, the committee on tank cars, in cooperation with the committee on tank cars of the American Railway Car Institute and the Bureau of Explosives, has prepared designs of emergency tank cars using thinner and narrower plates and two-piece heads. These designs of tank cars have been authorized by the Interstate Commerce Commission for the transportation of certain commodities and a considerable number have been built. These emergency designs of tank cars have saved a considerable steel tonnage for the war effort.

The committee has also cooperated in experiments in connection with emergency arrangements for transporting fuel oil and kerosene to the eastern seaboard including light gage steel tanks installed in boxcars, treated fabric tanks installed in boxcars, and use of steel cement containers transported in gondola

cars.

Standard freight cars.

The Master Car Builders Association first recommended that consideration be given to designing of standard boxcars at its convention of 1880. At that time the prevailing capacity for boxcars was 10 tons, but it was felt that the car of the future would require a capacity of 20 tons.

After the great progress made in the decade of the 1880's and the early 1890's in the standardization of such essential parts of freight cars as couplings and power brakes, a special committee prepared several designs for standard boxcars in 1897. While the association did not adopt in full any of the designs recommended, it did adopt as standard certain fundamental details recommended by this committee, which were generally adhered to for cars constructed over a period of several years.

From time to time, to meet the demand for cars of larger capacity, revisions have been made in these fundamental dimensions.

Between 1904 and 1932, designs for several types and sizes of cars were worked out and submitted by the committee on car construction of the association, some of them being adopted as recommended practice for the member roads. In connection with this work, the committee checked carefully the limiting clearances of all railroads and prepared for general use a limiting outline showing the greatest dimensions to which cars could be built and move freely on all railroads without restrictions of consequence.

In 1932 the committee on car construction, working in cooperation with an engineering committee of the American Railway Car Institute, prepared and submitted designs for 40- and 50-ton steel sheathed, steel framed, wood lined boxcars. These cars represented the latest state of the art, weighing from three to four thousand pounds less than any previously built boxcars of equal strength, size, and capacity. The design was adopted as a standard the same year, and five sample cars were built by the American Railway Association and subjected to extensive laboratory and road tests. In 1937 these designs were further modified to provide for increased inside height and width.

The present standard designs for 50- and 70-ton all-steel hopper cars were adopted in 1935; those for refrigerator cars in 1938; and those for extra long, extra wide, and extra high box and autobox cars in 1941.

All the above standard designs represent a substantial saving in weight and materials over the designs previously in use, without the use of special materials such as alloy steels and aluminum. Where desirable, these lightweight, highstrength materials can be introduced into the designs with still further savings in weight.

Standard parts.

In addition to the foregoing standard and recommended practice designs of cars, through the study, research, and tests of the committee on car construction and other committees, all the parts of cars which ordinarily wear out or fail in service have been fully standardized so that the cars of a railroad or private car line may be repaired wherever they become defective by using standard material from the stock of the handling line. This avoids delays account of the necessity of ordering repair parts from the car owner. Among the more important items thus fully standardized are: Wheels, couplers, axles, air brakes, brake beams, brake shoes, journal boxes, journal bearings, etc. These standards also insure safe operation of trains as they have all been most carefully developed and tested. These standards are also made mandatory through the interchange rules agreement executed by all railroads and private car lines.

During the present war emergency and in order to conserve the use of steel in the building of freight cars the committee on car construction, in cooperation with the War Production Board, Transportation Equipment Division, and the freightcar design committee of the American Railway Car Institute, prepared emergency designs for various types of freight cars, utilizing wood so far as possible in their construction.

As more steel became available, these emergency designs for freight cars were superseded by so-called Victory designs which were also prepared in cooperation with the same groups and which are still designed for the purpose of conserving the use of plate and sheet steel.

These emergency and Victory designs for freight cars made possible the building of a considerable number of freight cars without impairing the Nation's war effort.

In addition, in collaboration with the Pullman Co., designs for troop sleeping cars and troop kitchen cars have been prepared; 1,240 sleepers and 444 kitchen cars being built and placed in service. These troop cars also were designed and built as emergency cars requiring less steel and other critical materials in their construction than standard sleeping cars and baggage cars.

Arle research.

In June 1936 a program of axle research was instituted under the direction of a special committee and the mechanical engineer of the division, special fatiguetesting machines being built capable of testing full size axles which were installed at the laboratory of the Timken Roller Bearing Co., Canton, Ohio.

In addition, machines were installed to test miniature axles. The metallurgical work in connection with this project is carried on in the laboratory of the Timken Roller Bearing Co. at the expense of the Association of American Railroads. This program is still continuing, studying various phases of problems relative to designs, materials, and service of railway-car axles.

One of the major results of this research program has been the development and adoption in 1940 of a passenger-car axle suitable for high speed passenger service.

Another development has been the testing and approving for all purposes of a hollow forged axle known as the Urshel-Pittsburgh axle which results in substantial reduction in weight of the various sizes of axles.

In addition to recommendations which have been made and adopted as result of this research, progress reports are prepared and sent to the member railroads at frequent intervals.

Locomotive research and development.

The locomotive has been the subject of constant study, research, and development ever since the first one was built and operated. This work was carried on entirely by the individual railroads and locomotive builders until 1868, when the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association was organized. In addition to the development and research carried on by the individual railroads, locomotive builders and equipment manufacturers, many important problems were studied and reported upon by committees of railroad men working through that association and later through the mechanical division of the Association of American Railroads.

In addition to the great number of tests made by individual railroads, using either dynamometer cars with trained test crews, or the locomotive-testing plants of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, Pa., Purdue University, or the University of Illinois, there have been a great number and wide variety of cooperative tests conducted by the mechanical division of the Association of American Railroads and its predecessor organizations. Among the subjects covered by these numerous tests made over a period of years, have been axles, boiler plate, locomotive boilers, locomotive tires, exhaust nozzles and steam passages, compounding of locomotives, superheaters and the use of superheated steam, freight-train resistance and tonnage-rating tests, locomotive firing with various types of fuel, safety valves, boiler feed water, fire-box brick arches, smoke prevention, locomotive headlights, and, in fact, every feature of locomotive design and operation. These tests have been conducted by the appropriate committees of the mechanical division, working in cooperation with individual railroads and with manufacturers. The laboratory work has been done in the laboratories of numerous railroads, as well as various engineering colleges, and road tests have been run on numerous railroads in different parts of the country. The reports of these tests, published in special bulletins by the railroads and the universities, have had a large influence in the development of locomotive design.

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Tests of compound locomotives were conducted by the committee on locomotive tests of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad, the railway furnishing the locomotives and facilities. Two locomotives were ordered from the Baldwin Locomotive Works for these tests. These locomotives were identical in every respect, except for the featurers necessary to the compounding which were present in one of the locomotives. These tests were planned to sow the relative economy of the engines under the wide variations of conditions found in everyday service. The tests were started on March 31, 1892, and continued for 7 weeks. A dynamometer car was built for these tests and run directly behind the engine on each trip. Complete report of these tests is contained in the Proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association for 1892.

Eight locomotives were exhaustively tested on the locomotive testing plant installed by the Pennsylvania Railroad at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Mo., in 1904. These tests were under the direction of an advisory committee, which consisted of three members appointed by the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association. The report of these tests were published in a special bulletin in 1905, entitled "Locomotive Tests and Exhibits, Pennsylvania Railroad System, Louisiana Purchase Exposition." The Appendix to this bulletin, entitled "The Tests and Their Results," is reprinted in 1906 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association.

Tests of locomotive performance under saturated and superheated steam were conducted at the locomotive testing laboratory of Purdue University under the patronage of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. These tests were conducted between February 15, 1904, and August 7, 1905. Report of these tests is included in the 1909 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association. Further tests were made during 1909 and 1910 using the same laboratory and equipment. Report of these tests is included in the 1910 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association.

Tests of four-cylinder compound locomotives were made on the locomotive testing plant of the Pennsylvania Railroad at the St. Louis Exposition and reported in the 1906 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association, and at the locomotive testing plant of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, Pa., in 1907 and 1908, and reported in the 1908 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association.

Tests were conducted by the railway engineering department of the University of Illinois from April 1908 to May 1909, of freight train resistance; its relation to average car weight. All tests were made by means of test car No. 17, a dynamometer car, owned jointly by the University of Illinois and the Illinois Central Railroad, and were carried out on the Chicago division of that railroad. Report of these tests is included in the 1910 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association.

Locomotive firing tests were made on the locomotive testing plant of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, Pa., in September 1908. Complete report of these tests is included in the 1909 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association.

Tests of briquetted coal were made on the locomotive testing plant of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoon, Pa., in 1908. The tests were carried out under the direction of Dr. J. A. Holmes, expert in charge, Technologic Branch, United States Geological Survey. Report of these tests is included in the 1908 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association.

Tests on size and capacity of safety valves for use on locomotive boilers were conducted for a special committee of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association by the test department of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, Pa., during 1909 and 1910. Report of these tests is contained in the 1910 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association.

Tests on boiler feed waters were made on the Oregon Short Line and Southern Pacific Railroads to determine the action of different kinds of water on various kinds of metals. The tests were conducted by Prof. J. G. Serugham, of the University of Nevada. Report of these tests is included in the 1910 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association.

Tests of locomotive performance under different degrees of superheated steam were made at the locomotive testing laboratory at Purdue University during 1910 and 1911 and reported to the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association at the 1911 convention of the association. Report published in the 1911 proceedings of the association. Tests were continued during 1912 and 1913. Report published in the 1913 proceedings of the American Railway Master Mechanics' Association.