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this was not their original object is proved by the fact that during the last century the pockets were either vertical or horizontal, placed a little in front of the two hip buttons (which have since moved round towards the back), and had highly embroidered flaps, buttons, and buttonholes. The horizontal pockets may now be traced in the pocket-flaps of court dress before alluded to; and the vertical pocket is represented by some curious braiding and a row of buttons, which may be observed on the tails of the tunics of the footguards. The details of the manner in which this last rudiment became reduced to its present shape may be traced in books of uniforms, and one of the stages may now be frequently seen in the livery of servants, in the form of a row of three or four buttons running down near the edge of the tail, sewn on to a scolloped patch of cloth (the pocket-flap), which is itself

sewed to the coat.

In the last century when the coats had large flapping skirts, it became the custom (as may be seen in Hogarth's pictures) to button forward the two corners of the coat, and also to button forward the inner corners, so as to separate the tails for convenience in riding.* This custom left its traces in the uniform of our soldiers down to the introduction of the modern tunic, and such traces may still be seen in some uniforms, for example, those of a Lord. Lieutenant and of the French gensdarmerie. In the uniforms of which I speak, the coats have swallow-tails, and these are broadly edged with a light-colored border, tapering upwards and getting broader downwards; at the bottom of the tail, elow where the borders join (at which joining there is usually a button), there is a small triangle of the same color as the coat, with its apex at this button. This curious appearance is explained thus:-the two corners, one of which is buttoned forwards and the other backwards, could not be but toned actually to the edge of the coat, but had to be fastened a little inland as it were; and thus part of the coat was visible at the bottom of the tail: the lightcolored border, although sewn to the coat, evidently now represents the lining, which

It seems to have been in actual use in 1760, although not in 1794. See Cannon's Hist. Rec. of Brit. Army" (London, 1837), the 2d Dragoon Guards.

was shown by the corners being turned back.

It was not until the reign of George III. that coats were cut back at the waist, as are our present evening coats, but since, before that fashion was introduced, the coats had become swallow-tailed in the manner explained, it seems likely that this form of coat was suggested by the previous fashion. And, indeed, stages of development of a somewhat intermediate character may be observed in old engravings. In the uniforms of the last century the coats were double-breasted, but were generally worn open, with the flaps thrown back and buttoned to rows of buttons on the coat. These flaps, of course, showed the lining of the coat, and were of the same color as the tails; the button-holes were usually embroidered, and thus the whole of the front of the coat became richly laced. Towards the end of the century the coats were made tight, and were fastened together in front by hooks, but the vestiges of the flaps remained in a double line of buttons, and in the front of the coat being of a different color from that of the rest, and being richly laced. A uniform of this nature is still retained in some foreign armies. This seems also to explain the use of the term "facings" as applied to the collar and cuffs of a uniform, since, as we shall see hereafter, they would be of the same color as these flaps. It may also explain the habit of braiding the front of a coat, as is done in our Hussar and other regiments.

In a "History of Male Fashions," published in the London Chronicle in 1762, we find that "surtouts have now four laps on each side, which are called 'dog's ears;' when these pieces are unbuttoned, they flap backwards and forwards, like so many supernumerary patches just tacked on at one end, and the wearer seems to have been playing at backswords till his coat was cut to pieces. . . Very spruce smarts have no buttons nor holes upon the breast of these their surtouts, save what are upon the ears, and their garments only wrap over their bodies like a morning gown." These dog's ears may now be seen in a very meaningless state on the breasts of the patrol-jackets of our officers, and this is confirmed by the fact that their jackets are not buttoned, but fastened by hooks.

In early times, when coats were of silk or velvet, and enormously expensive, it was no doubt customary to turn up the

cuffs, so as not to soil the coat, and thus the custom of having the cuffs turn back came in. During the latter part of the seventeenth and during the eighteenth century, the cuffs were very widely turned back, and the sleeves consequently very short, and this led to dandies wearing large lace cuffs to their shirts.

The pictures of Hogarth and of others show that the coat cuffs were buttoned back to a row of buttons running round the wrist. These buttons still exist in the sleeves of a Queen's Counsel, although the cuffs are sewed back and the buttonholes only exist in the form of pieces of braid. This habit explains why our soldiers now have their cuffs of different colors from that of their coats; the color of the linings was probably determined for each regiment by the colonel for the time being, since he formerly supplied the clothing; and we know that the color of the facings was by no means fixed until recently. The shape of the cuff has been recently altered in the line regiments, so that all the original meaning is gone.

In order to allow of turning back with ease, the sleeve was generally split on the outer side, and this split could be fastened together with a line of buttons and embroidered holes. In Hogarth's pictures some two or three of these buttons may be commonly seen above the reversed cuff; and notwithstanding that at first the buttons were out of sight (as they ought to be) in the reversed part of the cuff, yet after the turning back had become quite a fixed habit, and when sleeves were made tight again, it seems to have been usual to have the button for the cuff sewed on to the proper inside, that is to say, the real outside of the sleeve.

The early stage may be seen in Hogarth's picture of the "Guards marching to Finchley," and the present rudiment is excellently illustrated in the cuffs of the same regiments now. The curious buttons and gold lace on the cuffs and collars of the tunics of the Life Guards have the like explanation, but this is hardly intelligible without reference to a book of uniforms, as for example Cannon's "History of the 2nd Dragoon Guards."

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The collar of a coat would in ordinary weather be turned down and the lining shown; hence the collar has commonly a different color from that of the coat, and n uniforms the same color as have the

cuffs, which form, with the collars, the so-called “facings." A picture of Lucien Bonaparte in Lacroix's work on Costume shows a collar so immense that were it turned up it would be as high as the top of his head. This drawing indicates that even the very broad stand-up collars worn in uniforms in the early part of this century, and of a different color from that of the coat, were merely survivals of an older form of turn-down collar. In these days, notwithstanding that the same difference in color indicates that the collar was originally turned down, yet in all uniforms it is made to stand up.

The pieces of braid or seams which run round the wrist in ordinary coats are clearly the last remains of the inversion of the cuffs.

TROUSERS.—I will merely observe that we find an intermediate stage between trousers and breeches in the pantaloon, in which the knee-buttons of the breeches have walked down to the ankle. I have seen also a German servant who wore a row of buttons running from the knee to the ankle of his trousers.

come

BOOTS.-One of the most perfect rudiments is presented by top-boots. These boots were originally meant to above the knee; and, as may be observed in old pictures, it became customary to turn the upper part down, so that the lining was visible all round the top. The lining being of unblacked leather, formed the brown top which is now worn. The original boot-tag may be observed in the form of a mere wisp of leather sewn fast to the top, whilst the real acting tag is sewn to the inside of the boot. The back of the top is also fastened up, so that it could not by any ingenuity be turned up again into its original position.

Again, why do we black and polish our boots? The key is found in the French cirage, or blacking. We black our boots because brown leather would, with wet and use, naturally get discolored with dark patches, and thus boots to look well should be colored black. Now, shooting boots are usually greased, and that it was formerly customary to treat ordinary boots in the same manner is shown by the following verse in the ballad of "Argentile and Curan:"

"He borrowed on the working daies His holy russets oft,

And of the bacon's fat to make
His startops black and soft."

Startops were a kind of rustic high shoes. Fairholt in his work states that "the oldest kind of blacking for boots and shoes appears to have been a thick, viscid, oily substance." But for neat boots a cleaner substance than grease would be required, and thus wax would be thought of; and that this was the case is shown by the French word cirer, which means indifferently to "wax" or to "polish boots." Boots are of course polished because wax takes so good a polish. Lastly, patentleather is an imitation of common blacking.

**

I have now gone through the principal articles of men's clothing, and have shown how numerous and curious are the rudiments or survivals," as Mr. Tylor calls them; a more thorough search proves the existence of many more. For instance, the various gowns worn at the Universities and elsewhere, afford examples. These gowns were, as late as the reign of Queen Elizabeth, simply upper garments, but have survived into this age as mere badges. Their chief peculiarities consist in the sleeves, and it is curious that nearly all of such peculiarities point to various devices by which the wearing of the sleeves has been eluded or rendered less burdensome. Thus the plaits and buttons in a barrister's gown, and the slit in front of the sleeve of the B.A.'s gown, are for this purpose. In an M.A.'s gown the sleeves extend below the knees, but there is a hole in the side through which the arm is passed; the end of the sleeve is sewed up, but there is a kind of scollop at the lower part, which represents the narrowing for the wrist. A barrister's gown has a small hood sewed to the left shoulder, which would hardly go on to the head of an infant, even if it could be opened out into a hood shape.

It is not, however, in our dress alone that these survivals exist; they are to be found in all the things of our every-day life. For instance, any one who has experienced a drive on a road so bad that leaning back in the carriage is impossible, will understand the full benefit to be derived from arm-slings such as are placed in first-class railway carriages, and will agree that in such carriages they are mere survivals. The rounded tracery on the out

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sides of railway carriages show the remnants of the idea that a coach was the proper pattern on which to build them; and the word "guard" is derived from the man who sat behind the coach and defended the passengers and mails with his blunderbuss.

In the early trains (1838-39) of the Birmingham Railway there were special "mail" carriages, which were made very narrow, and to hold only four in each compartment (two and two), so as to be like the coach they had just superseded.

The words dele, stet, used in correcting proof-sheets, the words sed vide or s.v., ubi sup., ibid., loc. cit., used in foot-notes, the sign "&" which is merely a corruption of the word et, the word finis until recently placed at the ends of books, are all doubtless survivals from the day when all books were in Latin. The mark used in writing for interpolations appears to be the remains of an arrow pointing to the sentence to be included. The Royal "broad-arrow" mark is a survival of the head of "a barbed javelin, carried by serjeants-at-arms in the king's presence as early as Richard the First's time."* Then again we probably mount horses from the left side lest our swords should impede us. The small saddle on the surcingle of a horse, the seams in the backs of cloth-bound books, and those at the backs of gloves are rudiments,--but to give a catalogue of such things would be almost endless. I have said enough, however, to show that by remembering that there is nihil sine causâ, the observation of even common things of every-day life may be made less trivial than it might at first sight appear.

It seems a general rule that on solemn or ceremonial occasions men retain archaic forms; thus it is that court dress is a survival of the every-day dress of the last century; that uniforms in general are richer in rudiments than common dress; that a carriage with a postilion is de rigueur at a wedding; and that (as mentioned by Sir John Lubbock) the priests of a savage nation, acquainted with the use of metals, still use a stone knife for the sacrifices-just as Anglican priests still prefer candles to gas.

The details given in this article, although merely curious, and perhaps insignificant in themselves, show that the study of dress from an evolutional standpoint serves as

* Fairholt, p. 580.

yet one further illustration of the almost infinite ramifications to which natural selec

tion and its associated doctrines of development may be applied. [From Macmillan's Magazine.

LIVINGSTONE'S DISCOVERIES.

WHATEVER may be the ultimate result of Dr. Livingstone's researches, it is not to be doubted that his name will be for ever associated with the history of the Nile. He is by far the greatest of all modern explorers. He has ventured more, seen more, and thrown a clearer light on the hydrography of Central Africa, than all his predecessors put together. Still, a cloud of doubt hangs suspended over the exit of the waters, among whose innumerable springs he has so long wandered; and it is to clear up, once for all, the mystery of their course, that he voluntarily condemns himself to remain an anchorite in unknown wilds and forests, for we know not how many years. He hopes, indeed, to complete his work in two years; but considering how much his previous stay has been protracted, we may fairly conclude that his return within that period is doubtful. Meanwhile, we observe with regret several marks of a disposition to disparage his labors, by attempting to prove that there exists no connection between the streams he has discovered and the river of Egypt. It would be unjust to say that Captains Speke and Grant discovered nothing, because they made us acquainted with the course and character of the Kit. angûle, which is certainly one of the feeders of the Nile; but their notion, that the Victoria N'yanza is the source of that river, is as irreconcilable with their own narrative as it is with the science of geography. They saw part of a lake, and heard a great deal about the rest of it; but they neither discovered its dimensions, nor how it is fed, nor how many streams fall into it, nor with what system of lakes it is connected at its southern extremity. All these points are still unknown, and so also is the source of the Kitangûle. Nothing, therefore, could be more unfounded than their pretension to have discovered the source of the Nile. It is highly probable that the stream which runs out of the Victoria N'yanza is one branch, and perhaps a principal branch of the Nile; but as they did not follow its course from the lake to its junction with

the Blue River, this probability does not amount to certainty. They have given, we admit, satisfactory reasons why they did not follow the great sweep which the river makes towards the west, and the extent of which is still unknown; and though, proceeding northwards, they came to a river, which they assumed to be the same as that they had left, they may have been mistaken, for, after parting company with it for a hundred miles, they could not be more sure that they were dealing with the same stream, than Dr. Livingstone in his assumed identification of the Lualaba with the Bahr-el-Gazal.

We are far from deciding dogmatically that the ridge of uplands, and the peaks that tower from their summit, are the Mountains of the Moon; they are situated about eleven degrees south of what Captain Speke assumes to be the Lunar Mountains of Ptolemy; but instead of contenting himself with transient glimpses of these terrene elevations, Dr. Livingstone patiently plodded along six hundred miles of the watershed, examining and describing in noble language his impressions of what he saw by the way. He has not beheld the whole, and does not say he has; on the contrary, he tells us that there remains yet a hundred miles of the watershed, and the most important hundred miles, which he has not visited. The reader who remembers the gorgeous picture which Buffon has drawn of the primitive earth, may im agine himself among its wastes and wilds, as he peruses Dr. Livingstone's descriptions of the spongy fountains, the morasses, the shallow lakes, hundreds of miles in length, the impenetrable forests which the traveller skirted, the wild buffalo and elephant tracks, in which the unwary wanderer often sinks to the thigh, where the foot of the huge beast has been, the reedy pools, many miles in length, resembling the mangrove swamps on the coast, the tor-like peaks, impending far up among the hills over runnels and fountains yet unvisited. As we have already said, it is not our intention to be positive where the

great traveller himself is not: after all his researches, he observes very modestly that he may be mistaken, and in that case expresses his readiness to confess his error; but if his own observations, and the testimony of natives whom he knows and trusts, can be relied upon, all the wealth of waters descending from the Lunar Mountains do certainly flow in a northerly direction, whether they ultimately unite with the Egyptian flood or not. The reason he gives for his own belief that it is the great valley in which the united waters flow, sometimes spreading into large lakes, sometimes forming huge lacustrine rivers, is, that the depression is hemmed in by high lands on the west as well as on the east, so that, up to the fourth degree of south latitude at least, he could perceive nothing to lessen his belief in the junction of the Lualaba with the great western arm of the Nile. Still, when his researches northward were interrupted at the fourth degree of south latitude, he had reached an immense sheet of water, which he calls the unknown lake, terminating, as he was assured by the natives, in extensive reedy swamps, which he persuaded himself must in the end join the Bahr-el-Gazal,

Both Captain Grant and Dr. Beke have written letters to the Times, in which they maintain that Dr. Livingstone's theory is impossible. An eminent German botanist, Dr. Schweinfurth, has discovered, they say, the source of that river in five degrees north latitude. But are they or the German botanist quite sure that the Bahr-el-Gazal has but one source? May it not, like the Bahr-el-Abiad, have many springs? so that, without disparaging the botanist's testimony, we may believe in the practicability of conducting the waters of the Lualaba into the Bahr-el-Gazal. But here Dr. Beke interposes another obstacle, which he considers insurmountable: the river Uelle traverses, he affirms, the line of march which the Lualaba must follow in its attempt to unite its forces with those of the western branch of the Nile. But with all due respect for the science of travellers whether at home or abroad, we have less faith than Dr. Beke in the astronomical observations by which the latitude and longitude of new places and heads of rivers are often determined. The Uelle may follow its occidental track in peace, and yet leave room for the north-eastern course of the Lualaba. However, as, from all these conflicting

ideas, it is obvious that certainty has not yet been attained, we persuade ourselves that the public will be content to await the result of Dr. Livingstone's final researches, which, whether they establish his previous theory or not, he will assuredly divulge to the world in their utmost completeness. For some time, it is well known, the chief of African travellers was supposed to be dead, his journals lost, his discoveries handed over to oblivion. Several languid endeavors were made by the scientific gentlemen of this country to discover his fate, or afford him succor if still alive. But causes on which we decline to dwell frustrated their attempts, and it was left for the correspondent of the New York Herald to explore the explorer, and show to England her bold son displaying the hereditary virtues of his race in the untrodden wilds of Central Africa. The name of Mr. Stanley, who carried the design of the New York Herald into execution, is now almost as well known as that of Livingstone himself, and respected wherever it is known. The meeting of the explorer and his deliv erer near the banks of the Tanganyika Lake is characteristic of British coolness and daring. Informed by a servant of the approach of a white man, Livingstone advanced to meet him, and, at the head of a small caravan, beheld the stars and stripes flaunting in the African breeze. He was therefore not left to conjecture from what quarter his deliverance was approaching. He is not one of those who care on which side of the Atlantic an Englishman is born, or whether he happens to be called an American or a Scotchman; it is enough that he is one of the leading race among mankind, which he feels himself also to be.

The communications of Livingstone himself to the Foreign Office, his letters to the New York Herald, and those of Mr. Stanley, giving an account of his proceedings in Africa, have made the public familiar with the leading facts of the case; it is not with these, therefore, that we have to deal, but with some important questions, geographical and physiological, arising out of them. Dr. Livingstone is a man of warm and grateful feelings-emotional, though not demonstrative; and as he has received numerous benefits from the Africans of the interior, he is naturally disposed to think kindly and judge favorably of them. But kindness is one thing, and science another, Men and women with whom he has for

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