sort of compromise with our physiological conscience. It is precisely such mistakes as this which are rectified, with the happiest effect, as soon as we come to apply exact investigation. The simple observation of the comparative effects of variations of dosage, in the two cases, at once destroys the supposed distinction, and places all these agents on a physiological level. It demonstrates that, in moderate quantities, they are stimulant; in excess, narcotic-paralyzing to the nervous system.

The sort of effect that is to be expected from the use of stimulant doses of any of these substances is indicated above, and the only one of the group which we are justified in employing in larger (that is, in narcotic) doses is chloroform. Owing to an admirable combination of qualities, by which this drug is at once very easily re

The line may fluctuate (just as does the line of normal alimentation, or feeding) in accordance with constitutional peculiarity, and very notably in accordance with the existing state of health; but a line there nevertheless is, in every case, beyond which the medicine or food becomes a poison. With regard to the articles which in common parlance we call food and to some other substances allied to them, this limit is not reached except by the administration of a very enormous dose. But with regard to all other members of the Materia Medica it is to be noted that their administration in even a slight excess is immediately productive of one or more of the following decidedly poisonous effects: 1. Narcosis; 2. Inflammation of tissues (especially of the alimentary canal and of the glandular systems); 3. Serious alteration of partic.ceived into the blood through the lungs, ular secretions from their normal type. It is probable that the last two groups are really only varieties of the narcotic effect; that is to say, of an effect which paralyzes especially the life of the nervous system, but which probably has also a direct lethal influence on the blood and on the tissues generally. Be this as it may, by far the most important of the evils in flicted by the excessive administration of substances, moderate doses of which act as stimuli, is the production of narcosis; and it is just this effect which results from excess in the use of some very familiar and important articles of daily consumption, and which unfortunately is constantly spoken of by the mischievous misnomer of "over-stimulation." In considering the action of stimuli, therefore, I shall confiue myself to that group of these agents which in large doses exchange their stimulant for narcotic properties.

and, on the other hand, very rapidly expelled again as soon as its temporary purpose has been fulfilled, we are able to employ chloroform so as to produce its truly poisonous effects (carrying these to a certain fixed limit, which is still at a safe distance from death) so as to render the patient completely insensible to the pain of the surgeon's knife. As the action of this anaesthetic presents a fair example of the general progress of narcosis when rapidly induced, it may be as well to describe the series of events which occur in an ordinary inhalation.

It is now fully proved that for safety it is quite necessary that such precautions shall be adopted as will insure that the air breathed by the patient shall not contain more than 3.5 per cent. of chloroform vapor. These precautions having been taken, the inhalation is pursued with great regularity, the operator taking care to asIt would be a great mistake to suppose sure himself that the pulse keeps up its that the interest of the action of such sub- tone sufficiently, and that the face and lips stances as alcohol, chloroform, opium, do not become blanched. The patient tea, coffee, and tobacco, is only or chiefly usually exhibits one mark of apprehensive for professional men. The strictly analo- nervousness very strongly, namely, an abgous principles which distinguish the phys- normal quickness of breathing altogether iological operation of them all are of a out of proportion to the pulse rate, and kind which it is really important for every owing, doubtless, to his attention being one to understand; for there is a sort of nervously directed to the respiratory orimpression abroad that, while tea and cof- gans. This abnormal quickness of breathfee are agents which we may afford to use ing is greatly diminished by the stimulant carelessly, as having no very marked reme-effect which the chloroform exerts during dial effects, and no poisonous effects at all, the other substances which I have named are dangerous medicine poisons which we only admit to our ordinary dietary by a

the short initial period in which as yet only a minute quantity has entered the blood. As soon as true narcosis commences the pulse rises in frequency; .simultaneously

with this the intellect begins to be disturb- | nervous system, and of the sort of signs ed, the patient loses (or only retains feebly) which indicate the commencement and the sense of present things, while occasion-progress of the poisoning. With alcohol ally (the restraint of prudence and moral- the case differs slightly; flushing of the ity being removed by the commencing features nearly always precedes the occurbrain-palsy) he becomes violent or indecent rence of intellectual confusion and thickin his talk; at the same time that palsy of ened speech, and might be taken as a the tongue begins to interfere with artic- warning. A symptom which, in the case ulation. Meantime, although from the of chloroform, is not very easy of apprepatient's recumbent posture this has not ciation, namely, partial numbness of the been perceived by the bystander, palsy of lips, owing to paralysis of sensory branches sensation and motion has commenced in of the fifth nerve, occurs quite early in the lower limbs, and now proceeds to in- alcohol-narcosis. The rest of this process vade the upper, and the patient may sink is strictly analogous to that induced by quietly into general muscular and sensory chloroform, except that it is less rapid of paralysis and profound unconsciousness. course; and that involuntary convulsion But often the last remnants of mental ac- very rarely occurs. It ends, if carried far tion display themselves in an explosion of enough, like chloroform-narcosis (slowly passion which causes more or less powerful continued for a very long while) in death, voluntary struggles on the part of the pa- by cessation of the respiratory movetient; and, even after voluntary action has ments; but if (what actually does occur ceased, the advancing narcosis may, and not in fatal accidents to human beings surgiunfrequently does, produce spasmodic rig- cally operated on under chloroform) a very idity of the muscles, and, occasionally, epi- large dose be suddenly thrown into the leptiform convulsions; all which "phenom- circulation, it falls on the heart, and may ena of excitement," as they have been ab- paralyze it at once, though in the case of surdly called, are really the direct (though alcohol this is rare. not the inevitable) consequence of the advancing nervous paralysis. The pupil, in the lesser degrees of narcosis, is contracted; but if the process is carried to a profound degree, as is necessary in operations on very sensitive parts (like the toenail-matrix, for instance), wide dilatation of the pupil ensues. In this stage the breathing is of a snorting character, and both it and the pulse are below the normal level of health. Flushing of the features and congestion of the eyes always occurs to a greater or less extent, and shows the existence of paralysis of the nerves which govern the vessels of the face and cranium; but of course this symptom is greatly aggravated when muscular struggles occur by purely mechanical means. Unless when a very profound degree of narcosis is required, a skilful operator will time the process of inducing anesthesia very nearly to the period of four minutes in the great majority of cases. It may be effected much more rapidly, but irregular phenomena are then more apt to occur, and it is not so easy to keep such a check on the strength of the inspired vapor as will make fatal accidents (as they ought to be) impossible.

The above description will give a pretty good idea of the regular and consecutive way

in which easily "diffusible" narcotics paralyze the various portions of the

The action of opium has been more misunderstood and misrepresented, perhaps, than that of any drug in the Pharmacopœia. It has been taken for granted by the majority of writers that the characteristic effect of this substance, the effect in virtue of which it proves medicinal, is a depressing one. Those, however, who have had the largest experience of its action under a variety of circumstances will at once agree that every desirable medicinal effect which can be obtained from it is of a purely stimulant kind. It is precisely when the action of the drug produces no languor or depression whatever that its usefulness is the most decided. What we desire to produce by opium, in the case of a patient racked by pain, or unable to sleep from any cause, is not by any means a palsy of sensitive nerves such as shall render them unable to express to the mind the idea of pain; or a palsy of the brain such as shall incapacitate it from supporting the functions proper to its fully conscious state. In each of these cases we desire a stimulant effect; we desire that the nerves may be replaced in their normal condition of healthy vigor, so that they may cease to utter the cry of distress; or that the brain may be restored to the natural state in which sleep is the inevitable consequence of a certain amount

of previous fatigue. In neither case does | paralysis of the nerves of the stomach, the opiate perform the duty of annihilat- and a general muscular tremor which indiing some positive materies morbi; it simply supplies a missing influence necessary to the bodily harmony. The rest is nature's own work. Excessive doses of opium produce palsy of sense, of motion, of consciousness, or, in creatures of weakly developed nervous system (as human infants, dogs, cats, and still more in some reptiles), convulsions of an epileptic or even tetanic character.

cates that the motor nervous system has not escaped. An over-dose of coffee produces nearly always a palpitation of the heart, which is due to partial palsy of its coördinating nerves; and chronic excess in the use of this beverage is apt to render this symptom an extremely frequent visitor, and to establish likewise a state of muscular tremor similar to that caused by habitual excess with tea or with tobacco.

The reader who has followed me carefully must have acquired a very different view of the action of stimuli from the popular one referred to in the opening words of this paper. It follows from what I have said that common food, provided it be easily digestible, is the typical stimulant, and this is really the case. There is no such curer of pain, sleeplessness, delirium, convulsion, etc., as concentrated soup or meat jelly; that is to say, on the average, this remedy will succeed more frequently than opium, or wine, or ammonia, or chloroform, or any other stimulant

The soothing and restorative action of tobacco, which is enjoyed by the smoker who is sufficiently experienced to have overcome the first purely mechanical difficulties of the act, are familiar enough. The narcotic effects of an overdose fall first upon that portion of the nervous system which is connected with the stomach; and, as the first effect of their paralyzing action, induce nausea, and sometimes vomiting. A more powerful narcotic effect tends to paralyze the sympathetic nervous system generally, and more especially that part of it which is concerned in the action of the heart; and useful as these may be when confined to there is grave danger of actual paralysis their really medicinal doses. It is in proof the latter organ, an accident which has portion as the latter remedies produce efoccurred many times as a consequence of fects like those of food that they are sucthe pernicious practice of smoking a num-cessful in achieving any of these objects; ber of cigarettes in succession and inhaling and the supposed "recoil," which we so all the smoke into the lungs, the result of constantly hear of as the necessary afterwhich is to introduce a very large quantity consequence of stimulation, is, in fact, a of the poison into the circulation. Cold pure myth. The symptoms of depression perspiration, and failure or intermittence which have given rise to this notion are of the pulse, are not merely disagreeable, only produced by the impregnation of the but really very serious, symptoms of to- blood with an excessive dose; when this bacco-poisoning, and should be met by has occurred, the symptoms are thencethe instant use of cold water affusion and forth those of narcosis only. the administration of ammonia or brandy. Now tea and coffee are just as capable, when given in excess, of producing narcosis as are the above-mentioned agents, although the evidences of paralyzing action are not so obvious. The excessive or untimely use of tea, especially of green tea, is well known to produce a restlessness which precludes the advent of sleep. This condition is, in fact, a narcotic delirium, analogous to the condition induced in many opium eaters by a debauch with that narcotic, and which has been described by De Quincey and others. The true rem-poisoned to insure the necessary contact edy for it is the administration of a little hot soup and a glass of wine, or a dose of sal-volatile. Often repeated.excesses with tea produce a chronic dyspepsia, which is the result of a real and very permanent

It is one of the laws of narcotic action that, in proportion to the frequency with which truly narcotic doses are repeated, a progressive increase in the quantity required to produce a given effect takes place. This is because the nervous system suffers a real physical lesion under the influence of each narcotic dose, and if time be not given before its repetition for nature to repair the mischief done, the evil crescit eundo. Less and less sensitive tissue remains to be acted on, and the blood must be more and more thoroughly

of the poison with the nervous matter which is the seat of those processes which give rise to the sensual delights of the intemperate. To say this is at once to destroy the authority for the vulgar state

ment that the use of a daily stimulant in- | the situation of affairs very much where volves a periodical increase of dose; a it was at the beginning.

statement to which the habits of millions If, however, these quarrels develop no of temperate indulgers in stimulants have always given a practical contradiction, and which is shown by the above considerations not to possess even a theoretical basis.

the crippled hands of King William, that the Emperor of Austria took his present course, so it was also to obtain the ascendant over the National Verein. Having once truckled to them, it was impossible to oppose them; and they became the more powerful, by developing an informal army in the Free Corps who were ready for any service.

to defeat the commercial treaty between | practical measures. As it was to gain the France and Prussia by offering to enter lead in Germany, and to wrest it from the Zollverein, and his overture had been rejected in the most discourteous terms. King William had then outraged the public feeling of Germany by his unconstitutional conduct to the Prussian Chambers, and he had alienated himself from every liberal sympathy. Accordingly, the Emperor Francis Joseph summoned the minor sovereigns to discuss with him at Frankfort a project of Federal Reform, One great object of the National Verein which captivated the imagination of the was to obtain the Danish duchies and Liberals, by appealing to the principles of the sea-coast; and the force of public parliamentary supremacy that were set feeling in Germany soon buried the effigy up in 1848, and insured the ostracism of of reform, and carried the German princes the King of Prussia, by carefully identi- along with it in the violence of its curfying them with those which he had just rent. The Danish question itself has been trampled under foot at Berlin. The re- discussed in another article. Here, theresult was an obvious one. All the minor fore, we need only observe that the viosovereigns, anxious for popularity, con- lence of the Germans, and the recklessness curred in the Austrian proposal; but the of the late King of Denmark, combined Prussian monarch had no choice but to simultaneously to provoke the storm that gather up the relics of his power, by re- burst upon that part of Europe in. Janufusing to attend, and by so insuring the ary last. M. Hall, the late king's minisresultlessness of the projected measure. ter, introduced into the parliament at CoFor this, however, the emperor cared penhagen the bill for a common constitunothing. He had been wholly indifferent tion between Denmark and Slesvic, which to reform; and he could gain ascendency in Germany quite as well by proposing liberal measures as by carrying them out. The sovereigns accordingly met at Frankfort; and the proposals brought forward were precisely those that afforded the most cutting practical criticism on the King of Prussia. Of the flagrant insincerity of all parties it is unnecessary to say a word. The proposals of the Em-cessor. peror of Austria were simply inconsistent with his own crown. To govern a confederacy of sovereigns by a federal democratic parliament was nearly equivalent to abolishing the sovereigns themselves. At this juncture, King William was the only man who was actuated by even an approach to common honesty; but the reliance of the Austrian Cabinet on his stubbornness was complete, and they insisted with the more clamor on the measure which they knew that his opposition must defeat.

had undoubtedly been provided against by the convention of 1851; and King Christian took the crown at the very moment at which that bill, having just passed the two houses, was awaiting the royal sanction. For this reason, we have always considered that the present King of Denmark was placed in a deplorable predicament by the rashness of his prede

From this circumstance,, the National Verein gained a further pretext for an attack upon Denmark. Their first achievement was to obtain from the Diet a declaration of Federal execution as against Holstein, a duchy of the Confederation. In this matter, which followed the comedy of the sovereigns at Frankfort by only a few months, the minor powers at once identified themselves with the National Verein. The first result was that Austria, who had given up so much in character and consistency for the lead in Germany, The Frankfort theatricals, however, co- found that she had lost grasp of the incided with the development of a com- phantom in a moment. For the first bination that was really earnest, and, time since the creation of the Bund in therefore, more powerful than all. This 1815, the minor powers found themselves was the National Verein. This formi- in the ascendant at Frankfort. From that dable body held its meetings in Dresden moment the rapprochement of Austria and other capitals, urging German popu- and Prussia began. The latter power lar union, and a union for the sake of wanted to regain her influence over her