particular needs. By abandoning the ghosts of tradition, the secondary school may be made to adapt its offerings to any community, whatever these needs may be. Potentially the secondary school is a thoroughly democratic and cosmopolitan institution.

(6) CONTINUATION OR VOCATIONAL EXTENSION WORK IS NEEDED

The fact that great numbers of young people enter upon wageearning before the completion of a secondary school course and an even greater number before finishing the elementary school requires that provision be made for continuation or part time education for those at work. For workers not yet physically mature, this should be day school study. For men and women of maturity, evening school work may be engaged in without the dangers to physical and moral health and growth to which adolescents are subjected by evening school attendance. Such supplementary education needs to be exceedingly flexible in its offerings. For many workers there are immediately practical vocational problems which may be met by supplementary school courses covering from four or five to eight or ten hours each week. Very often the most desirable organization of such work is on the basis of short units each of which meets an immediate and pressing demand of the worker and each of which would increase his daily efficiency and earning capacity. In a number of states legal provision has been made for the public support of continuation school pupils who are at work but who are excused from work several hours each week to attend the school. If the occupation entered is satisfactory and is to be permanent, the continuation school work should directly supplement it in order to make for direct and increased efficiency in it. If the work is but temporary and it is desired to prepare the student for some other vocation, school work should be provided which will make a later transfer into the chosen vocation relatively easy and progress rapid after entrance.

In continuation school work, either day or evening, there is a large demand for courses in the general education subjects. The elementary school work in English, mathematics, geography, history and science are not found adequate. While the cost of evening work in addition to day school work places a large burden of taxation upon the community, it is the penalty society should pay for its failure to adjust itself to modern conditions without child labor. Great as is the cost, it is a good investment, both economically and socially. Little that is general in the detailed direction of supplementary day or evening school work may be said, as each community must study its own problems and needs and adjust and adapt its offerings to meet these community needs.

THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

The junior high school, consisting of the seventh, eighth and ninth grades, is rapidly responding to the needs of those pupils who enter wage-earning occupations in their early teens. It does this by offering in the seventh and following grades an election of work among several practical courses, usually industrial, commercial, and agricultural. The amount of elective work in any one of these fields, perhaps not more than two school periods each day in the seventh year, is increased in the eighth and still more in the ninth year, where it may receive half time. Parallel with these practical courses are closely related supplementary courses and courses continuing the general education of the earlier grades. In the industrial field, the work may be distributed over woodworking, metalworking, concrete construction, electrical wiring and installation, printing and some other forms of industrial activities, or it may concentrate intensively upon but one or two of these lines. A combination of these methods is most common, the pupil taking one or two short units in each field in first, or first and second years and as a result of this trying-out or testing of his aptitudes and interests selecting for intensive study during the remainder of his course the kind of work for which he is best adapted. If he leaves school at the end of the three years he may enter wage-earning as a helper with a foundation making him more immediately useful and also enabling him to advance more rapidly than without this training. With his practical shop work he has had some supplementary work in industrial mathematics, industrial drawing and design, and industrial science. He has come to see the worth and possibilities of school work in vocational preparation, and, if opportunities for continuation or vocational extension work are offered by the school, he will usually make every effort to attend and will continue to grow in efficiency and in earning capacity. In the commercial or agricultural fields the plan may operate as in the industrial.

Schools have developed in a number of states under such names as, "vocational schools," "intermediate industrial schools,” "trade schools" and "shop schools," which offer courses of two or three years in length somewhat approximating the foregoing description. But these are usually limited to industrial vocations, and, in most cases, they are separated quite fully from the "regular" schools, and tend rather to neglect the continuation of the general education so much needed by industrial workers. The Vocational School for Boys and the Manhattan Trade School for Girls of New York City; the Saunders Trade School of Yonkers, New York; the Intermediate Industrial School of Cleveland, Ohio; the two years' course of the Dickinson High School of Jersey City, New Jersey; the Shop Schools of Rochester, New York; the day industrial schools of Massachusetts and the industrial continuation schools of Wisconsin are variants of this type. The Shop Schools of Rochester, New York, are of special interest because of the definite, written, three-party agreement entered upon. Here there is full coöperation between the school and the industries. The school, the employer and the pupil enter into an agreement, the employer to provide a certain amount of work and training each week, paying a specified wage for the work, the school to supplement this with certain related courses and general subjects, and the pupil to enter appropriately into both phases of the work.

From most of the schools of the foregoing general type, the pupil enters the vocation for which he has been preparing as helper or apprentice with some credit or advanced standing which reduces from one to two years the time for attaining the rating of journey

man.

THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

In the period following the junior high school, or in the usual second, third and fourth years of high school, more definitely specialized vocational courses in industrial, commercial and agricultural fields may well be offered for those not expecting to enter more advanced institutions. Here fully half of the time, or even more than half, may be devoted to shop, office, or field practice and closely related technical or supplementary subjects. Where possible, the most satisfactory organization is the coöperative plan, examples of which are found at Fitchburg, Massachusetts, New York City and Cincinnati, Ohio. By this plan, the shop or office work is done in commercial plants or offices. The usual method is to pair the students, one spending a given week at work, the other in school, alternating the week following, and so on, week about. The school is then relieved of the expensive equipment, material and teaching staff for practical work and devotes its time to the supplementary technical and general phases of the student's education. A coordinator, spending a part of his time in visiting and organizing the sequence of problems in shop or office, and a part in visiting and aiding in the organization of problems in the school, attempts to secure a unity between practical work and school work that makes each supplement and support the other. If this coöperative arrangement with employers is not possible, then the school must provide the shop, office, or field practice for the development of working skill and knowledge in the respective fields. A typical and excellent example of a four years' vocational course for industrial workers fully provided in all its aspects as a part of the school's work is that of the Dickinson High School of Jersey City, New Jersey. From three to four years of practical shop work are offered in each of the more important woodworking and metalworking industries. With these are extensive technical courses in drawing, mathematics and science, and some work in general, liberalizing subjects. Graduates of this school may quickly attain journeyman standing in the vocations for which they have prepared because of the intensive shop training and the extensive range of technical knowledge they have received from the several courses.

The variety in which any school system may reasonably offer specialized vocational courses is a matter of local demand. In all but the very largest industrial and commercial communities no specific course should be offered until a survey of the given occupation is made in the community and the annual requirement for new workers shown to be sufficiently large to justify a class whose graduates would be absorbed by the demand. If coöperative courses are possible, the school may support the work with smaller classes than if the practical work also must be provided by the school.

The manual training and technical high schools, though originally developed with the expectation that they would attract many students for vocational preparation, have become very largely preparatory schools for colleges of engineering and technology. Because of the excellent technical training in subjects related to shop work, those more enterprising students who do enter industry after graduation from these schools often rise rapidly to positions as foremen or to other directive positions requiring this technical knowledge. A considerable number of boys who have graduated from the technical high schools of Cleveland, Ohio, and Springfield, Massachusetts, have entered industry and have been promoted to positions of directive responsibility. The manual training or technical high school does not, however, seem to promise much for those whom we may call the privates in industry. They are rather for the non-commissioned officers of industrial organization. The vocational school for the great masses of workers must not demand so much of the more highly technical nor unrelated general material, but dwell more intensively upon the practical and closely related supplementary work. Yet, while laying due emphasis upon the vocational problems and processes, they need not crowd out other activities that have an indirect bearing upon practical efficiency and a very direct bearing upon civic and social efficiency as a whole.

PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

The beginnings of vocational education in this country for both industrial and commercial work have been conducted quite apart from the public schools. The mere mention of the business colleges is sufficient to recall the earlier history of vocational training for commercial work. By reference to the work of such institutions as Pratt, Wentworth, Drexel, Stout, Armour, Lewis, Hampton, and Tuskegee Institutes, the various mechanics' institutes, and Bradley and other polytechnic institutes, all offering courses preparatory to entrance or to more advanced work in industrial vocations, we see the beginnings and perhaps the most comprehensive development of vocational education for non-professional vocations. Their work, on the whole, has been better adapted to the needs of young men and women beyond the secondary school stage than for early adolescents. In attempting to develop secondary work in public schools by imitating these institutions we may have a reason for the narrowness and mediocre success of some secondary schools, The almost exclusively practical and technical character of the work of these institutions can not be brought